Basic Hydroponic Systems and How They Work

WICK SYSTEM

The Wick system is by far the simplest type of hydroponic system. This is a passive system, which means there are no moving parts. The nutrient solution is drawn into the growing medium from the reservoir with a wick. Free plans for a simple wick system are available (click here for plans).
This system can use a variety of growing medium. Perlite, Vermiculite, Pro-Mix and Coconut Fiber are among the most popular.
The biggest draw back of this system is that plants that are large or use large amounts of water may use up the nutrient solution faster than the wick(s) can supply it
.

WATER CULTURE

The water culture system is the simplest of all active hydroponic systems. The platform that holds the plants is usually made of Styrofoam and floats directly on the nutrient solution. An air pump supplies air to the air stone that bubbles the nutrient solution and supplies oxygen to the roots of the plants.
Water culture is the system of choice for growing leaf lettuce, which are fast growing water loving plants, making them an ideal choice for this type of hydroponic system. Very few plants other than lettuce will do well in this type of system.
This type of hydroponic system is great for the classroom and is popular with teachers. A very inexpensive system can be made out of an old aquarium or other water tight container. We have free plans and instructions for a simply water culture system
The biggest draw back of this kind of system is that it doesn't work well with large plants or with long-term plants.

EBB & FLOW - (FLOOD AND DRAIN)

The Ebb and Flow system works by temporarily flooding the grow tray with nutrient solution and then draining the solution back into the reservoir. This action is normally done with a submerged pump that is connected to a timer.
When the timer turns the pump on nutrient solution is pumped into the grow tray. When the timer shuts the pump off the nutrient solution flows back into the reservoir. The Timer is set to come on several times a day, depending on the size and type of plants, temperature and humidity and the type of growing medium used.
The Ebb & Flow is a versatile system that can be used with a variety of growing mediums. The entire grow tray can be filled with Grow Rocks, gravel or granular Rockwool. Many people like to use individual pots filled with growing medium, this makes it easier to move plants around or even move them in or out of the system. The main disadvantage of this type of system is that with some types of growing medium (Gravel, Growrocks, Perlite), there is a vulnerability to power outages as well as pump and timer failures. The roots can dry out quickly when the watering cycles are interrupted. This problem can be relieved somewhat by using growing media that retains more water (Rockwool, Vermiculite, coconut fiber or a good soiless mix like Pro-mix or Faffard's).

DRIP SYSTEMS
RECOVERY / NON-RECOVERY

Drip systems are probably the most widely used type of hydroponic system in the world. Operation is simple, a timer controls a submersed pump. The timer turns the pump on and nutrient solution is dripped onto the base of each plant by a small drip line. In a Recovery Drip System the excess nutrient solution that runs off is collected back in the reservoir for re-use. The Non-Recovery System does not collect the run off.

A recovery system uses nutrient solution a bit more efficiently, as excess solution is reused, this also allows for the use of a more inexpensive timer because a recovery system doesn't require precise control of the watering cycles. The non-recovery system needs to have a more precise timer so that watering cycles can be adjusted to insure that the plants get enough nutrient solution and the runoff is kept to a minimum.
The non-recovery system requires less maintenance due to the fact that the excess nutrient solution isn't recycled back into the reservoir, so the nutrient strength and pH of the reservoir will not vary. This means that you can fill the reservoir with pH adjusted nutrient solution and then forget it until you need to mix more. A recovery system can have large shifts in the pH and nutrient strength levels that require periodic checking and adjusting.

N.F.T.
(Nutrient Film Technique)

This is the kind of hydroponic system most people think of when they think about hydroponics. N.F.T. systems have a constant flow of nutrient solution so no timer required for the submersible pump. The nutrient solution is pumped into the growing tray (usually a tube) and flows over the roots of the plants, and then drains back into the reservoir.

There is usually no growing medium used other than air, which saves the expense of replacing the growing medium after every crop. Normally the plant is supported in a small plastic basket with the roots dangling into the nutrient solution.
N.F.T. systems are very susceptible to power outages and pump failures. The roots dry out very rapidly when the flow of nutrient solution is interrupted.

AEROPONIC

The aeroponic system is probably the most high-tech type of hydroponic gardening. Like the N.F.T. system above the growing medium is primarily air. The roots hang in the air and are misted with nutrient solution. The mistings are usually done every few minutes. Because the roots are exposed to the air like the N.F.T. system, the roots will dry out rapidly if the misting cycles are interrupted.

A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic systems, except the aeroponic system needs a short cycle timer that runs the pump for a few seconds every couple of minutes.

Dragon Fruit - Hylocereus undatus

A dragon fruit is the fruit of several cactus species, most importantly of the genus Hylocereus. It is native to South and Central America, belong to perennial epiphytic plant. It is also commercially cultivated in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Israel as well as Sri Lanka.

Now dragon fruit is also popularizing in Sri Lanka. It can be cultivated low country wet zone, intermediate zone as well as dry zone with the irrigation facilities. Department of Agriculture is conducting research to improve the cultivation.

Three types of Dragon fruit species.

1.Red colour fruit coat with white colour flesh

2.Red colour fruit coat with red colour flesh

3.Yellow colour fruit coat with white colour flesh

Uses
Dragon fruit is important as a fruits as well as ornamental plant. Ripen fruits can be used directly to consume. Also it can be used for produce jam, ice cream, jelly, fruit juice as well as wine. Dragon fruit buds can be prepared as a curry.

Dragon fruit increases the digesting power of the foods. Also it has ability to control cancer, diabetics, high cholesterol as well as blood pressure.

Nutritional value
The typical nutritional value per 100g of ripen Dragon fruit is as follows

Nutrition	Amount
Water	82.5- 83 g
Protein	0.159- 0.229 g
Fat	0.21- 0.61 g
Fiber	0.7- 0.9 g
Carotene	0.005- 0.012 mg
Calcium	6.3- 8.8 mg
Phosphorus	30.2- 36.1 mg
Iron	0.55- 0.65 mg
Vitamin B	1 0.28- 0.043 mg
Vitamin B	2 0.043- 0.045 mg
Vitamin B	3 0.297- 0.43 mg
Vitamin C	8.0- 9.0 mg
Thaiamin	0.28- 0.30 mg
Riboflavin	0.043- 0.044 mg
Niacin	1.297- 1.30 mg
Ash	0.28 g
Other	0.54- 0.68 g

Ripen fruits are rich in vitamins.

Climatic Conditionn
Dragon fruits can tolerate poor soil conditions and temperature variations.
Tropical climate is good for dragon fruit cultivation. The optimum temperature range is about 20 - 30 oC. Also it needs about 500 1500mm annual rainfall with alternate dry and wet climatic condition. It need good sunlight, but not suitable for long period. At that time shading is important.

Soil and Water
Good drainage system is important to dragon fruit cultivation. 10-30% sandy soils with organic matters provide good condition for plant growth. Sandy soils also suitable for dragon fruit cultivation.

Preparation of Planting Material
1. Planting of cuttings  Common method

2. Seedlings  Seeds can be used to produce seedlings. But, commercially not in used. Because it takes long period as well as it can not continue characteristics of mother plants.

Use cuttings for planting
Obtain cuttings from the selected mother plants.
15 20 cm cuttings are used for planting. Pile up these cutting 1-2 days prior to potting.
Then these cuttings are potted with planting mixture.

Planting mixture
Dry Cow dung          1
Top soil                 1
Sand                    2

Keep these pots with shade place to rooting.
These rooted cuttings are acclimatized before planting infields.

Planting
Planting space is about 2 x 2m.
Pit size is about 60 x 60 x 60cm. These pits are filled by top soil, decomposed cow dung or compost with 10og of super phosphate. To improve the drainage, add small brick pieces and some amount of sand to bottom of the pit.

Training of Plants
Dragon fruit needs support to up right growth. Because wooden or concrete column can be used. Immature stem must be tied to that column. But thereafter aerial roots developed and bound to column. Lateral shoots must be limited and 2-3 main stems are allowed to grow. Because lateral shoots bust be removed time to time. It is important to arrange round metal frame to maintain balanced shrub. Because it spread the hanging shoots balance way.


Removing of lateral buds

Inducing lateral branches
Disease
Specially, in dragon fruits, a lesser amount of pest and disease are there. But funfi diseases have been recorded in some countries.

Flowering

Dragon fruit flower bloom at night and it is off white in colour. Their fragrant helps to pest attraction. In intermediate zone, flowering will initiate at April/ May period. Due to beauty of the flower, these flowers also named as Queen of night, Moon flower and Nobal woman.

Fruiting
Fruits will be matured 30 -35 days after flowering. Fruiting period will continue up to November. Harvesting can be done six times with in this period.

Outer cover of immature is in bright green colour. It will become red in colour with ripening. Proper time of harvesting is after four days of colour changing. But for export purpose, it is important to harvesting a day after colour changing.

Fertilizer Application
Dragon fruit forest related plant belong to family Cactaceae. Therefore it needs water and fertilizer. It is newly introduced plant for cultivation. Thus hasnt recommended fertilizer mixture yet. But good result can be obtained by applying below mentioned fertilizer mixtures.

Organic Fertilizer
Organic fertilizer is very important to proper growth and development of dragon fruit plant. Because apply 15kg of organic fertilizer per plant and increase the amount by 2kg per year up to 20kg.

Inorganic Fertilizer
For vegetative stage
Apply below mentioned fertilizer mixture each four months.

• Urea - 72 g
• Super phosphate - 88 g
• Muriate of potash - 40 g

For bearing trees
It is important to apply low amount of nitrogen and high amount of potash for obtain ample yield. Apply below mentioned mixture per plant before the flowering (April) fruit developing stage (July/ August) as well as after the harvesting (December).

• Urea - 50 g
• Super phosphate - 50 g
• Muriate of potash - 100 g

It is import to increase the applied amount of fertilizer by 225g per year up to 1.5 kg.

Water Management
Irrigation is needed for normal growth and yield of the plant in dry season. Also, need to apply irrigation system in dry zone.

Yield
Average fruit weight is about 300-600 g in intermediate zone. Average yield is about 10000kg per ha. in our country.

Clear felling system | forestrynepal

Clear felling system | forestrynepal

Coppice System

The silvicultural system in which the crop is regenerated mainly from stool coppice and with short rotation is known to be coppice system. Reproduction is obtained from the shoots arising from the adventitious buds of the stump of felled trees. Coppice systems are further classified on the basis of pattern of felling and mode of regeneration as well

1. Simple coppice system

A silvicultural system based on stool coppice in which the old crop is clear felled completely with no reservation.
Pattern of felling in simple coppice system consists in clear felling a fixed area annually. Area of coppice coupe = 1/n x total area, where n is the number of years in rotation.

Simple coppice system

Season for coppicing

• The best season for coppicing is a little before the growth start in spring because at this time there is a large reserve food material in roots which is utilized by the coppice shoots.
• During the dormancy period. (from Nov. – Feb./March)

Method of felling

• The stump should neither be too low nor too high.
• The lower the stump, the better it is for coppice shoot.
• But if the trees are cut very low there is a danger of the stump splitting and or drying up from top.
• On the other hand, the higher the stumps, the greater the possibility of shoots being damaged by wind or animals.
• Stumps are usually kept, 15-25 cm high. (10 cm for eucalyptus)

2. Coppice with standard system

It is silvicultural system based on stool coppice in which over wood of standards, usually of seedling origin and composed of trees of various ages, is kept over coppice for a period of multiple coppice rotation. It is usually applied in shade- tolerant species.

Coppice with standard

Purpose of standards: (i) To supply large size timber (ii) To protection against frost (iii) To enrichment of coppice (iv) To provide seedling regeneration (v) To increase in revenue
Advantages

• There is greater protection to the soil.
• Advantage of heavy shelterwood felling and selection system.
• Standards serve as seed bearers and provide seed.
• The investment is small and the net return is higher.
• Aesthetically superior than simple coppice.

Disadvantages

• It requires great skill in maintaining correct balance between standards and coppice and between standards of different age classes.
• This is a combination of simple coppice system and high forest system with the advantage of none.
• It has an exhaustive effect on soil.
• Felling and extraction cost is higher than high forest

3. Coppice with reserve system

A silvicultural system in which felling is done only in suitable areas likely to benefit, after reserving all financially immature growth of principal as well as other valuable miscellaneous species, either singly or in optimally spaced groups, trees yielding products of economic importance and protective reasons, first introduced in 1934-35.

Reservation by area

Pattern of felling: In this system, the emphasis is not on felling but on conservation. Distinguish areas which, require protection or some improvement felling and areas in which felling can be done according to the requirement of crop, local people, and site. Then felling may be from clear felling to practically no felling by reserving all trees, which may depend on areas or trees.
Tending: Tending should be done-clearing, climber cutting, and reduction of coppice shoots. Recently rotation has been discarded and suggested to work the forests on felling cycle of 10-15 years.
Character of the crop: The resultant crop under this system comprises of irregular groups of even aged coppice with uneven aged reserve crop scattered irregularly. Thus, taking the crop as whole, it is uneven aged.
Advantages

• It helps in improving the quality of locality as a result of soil and moisture conservation, maintenance of crop mixture.
• It helps in improving the condition and composition of crop.
• It fulfills the needs of local population and the requirement of industries.
• It avoids the sacrifice of financially immature crop whose value increases. Thus it offers best financial returns per unit area.

Disadvantages

• Its execution requires a high degree of skill.
• Reservation of a large number of trees affects coppice growth adversely

Conditions of applicability

• When the crop varies greatly in density, composition, and quality and proportion of valuable species is low.
• When most of the species are good coppicers and the coppicing power of most valuable species is vigorous.
• When valuable species in the crop is light demanders.

Coppice with reserves system is not suitable:

• When valuable species are shade bears and frost tenders.
• When there is likelihood of invasion of fast growing obnoxious weeds, shrubs, and grasses such as Lantana, and Imperata.
• When the crop does not contain valuable species and there is no hope to improving it by coppicing.
• When it is not possible to protect the area against fire and grazing at least for five years after main felling.

4. Coppice of two rotations system

A coppice system based on stool coppice in which after the initial coppicing of the crop at the beginning of the first rotation, part of the crop is not coppiced to produce large sized timber. The number of trees so reserved from being coppiced again in the second rotation, depends on the quantity of large sized timber required in the market.

5. Shelterwood coppice system

A coppice system in which even in the initial coppicing, shelter wood (of almost 125 to 150 trees per ha) is retained for frost protection. It is specially suited to frost tender species in frosty localities and forest hardy species, promising are selected, which are removed gradually when the coppice shoots are fully established and are free from frost danger. When coppice shoots are 5 years old, the shelter trees are to be reduced to 63 to 75 and after 10 years , all the shelter trees are removed. The resultant crop is even aged.

6. Coppice selection system

A coppice system in which fellings are carried out on the principles of selection system, but regeneration is obtained by coppice. The resultant crop is uneven aged can be suitably applied in Acacia species and also applied for the management of small area of poor quality shorea forest. In this system, the forest is divided into a number of annual coupes equal to number to the years in felling cycle. Only those trees which have attained the exploitable diameter fixed quite low are removed in main felling. 7. The Pollard System Pollard is defined as a tree whose stem are cut off in order to obtain a flush of shoots, usually above the height to which the browsing animals can reach. This system is suitable when demand of fuelwood and fodder is high. For example, salix, Hardwickia binata, etc species are suited for pollarding, which have high coppicing power.

GROWING COCOA

COCOA IS GROWN ON TREES

The cocoa tree bears fruit on its trunk and branches.
They are called pods.
The pods contain seeds which are called cocoa beans.
The beans are made up of a seed coat, a kernel and a germ.

1. Cocoa needs a high temperature, plenty of water, and air that is always moist.
   Therefore, cocoa is grown in the hot and humid regions of Africa (mainly in forest regions), Central and South America, Asia and Oceania.
   
   Cocoa bean cut in two
   
   
   
   Cocoa pod

WHAT VARIETIES OF COCOA CAN BE GROWN IN AFRICA?

2. Three main varieties of cocoa are grown in Africa:
   Criollo
   When Criollo pods are ripe, they are long, yellow or red, with deep furrows and big warts.
   This variety does not produce as much as the others but the cocoa is of very good quality.
   It is grown mainly in America.
   Forastero (Amelonado)
   The pods are short, yellow, smooth without warts, with shallow furrows.
   This variety produces well, but the quality is not as good as Criollo. It is grown a lot in Africa.
   Trinitario
   This variety is a cross between Criollo and Forastero.
   The pods are long or short, red and yellow.
   It yields cocoa of fairly good quality.
   

WHY COCOA IS GROWN

3. People grow cocoa trees in order to sell the cocoa beans that are in the pods.
   The kernel of the cocoa beans is used to make cocoa and chocolate.
   In the countries of Europe and North America people eat a lot of cocoa and chocolate.
   But the cocoa tree does not grow in their countries; they buy cocoa from Africa.
   The countries of Africa earn a lot of money by selling their cocoa.
   With this money, they can build schools and dispensaries, they can build roads and modernize the country. For Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Cameroon, cocoa is an important export crop.
   But to earn more money, these countries must sell good quality cocoa.
   Sometimes they sell cocoa of poor marketing quality, badly harvested and badly fermented and dried.
   Cocoa is better and fetches a higher price when it has been properly harvested, fermented and dried.
   In order to sell a lot of cocoa beans of good quality, the grower must:
   
   • Choose the seeds and grow the seedlings carefully.
   • Choose a good site for his plantation and prepare it well.
   • Look after his plantation continuously.
   • Harvest the pods and prepare the beans properly.
     

     CHOOSING SEEDS AND GROWING SEEDLINGS

   • The grower can buy at research centres
     
     • either selected seeds of good quality
       He sows the seeds in a nursery bed or in baskets. Later, he plants out the seedlings in the plantation.
     • or young seedlings of good quality
       He plants them straight away in the plantation.
   • But some growers have no research centre nearby.
     They can nevertheless have good cocoa plantations by:
     
     • choosing their own seeds,
     • sowing their seeds in a nursery bed,
     • planting out their seedlings in the plantation.
     Nursery bed is the name for the place where the seeds are sown to make them germinate.

   CHOOSING SEEDS

   If you want to have fine cocoa trees which produce a lot of big pods, you must choose carefully the seeds you are going to sow.
4. If you choose your own seeds:
   
   • choose the biggest pods from the trees which bear a lot of fruit.
   The good quality of the tree and of the seed enters into the new plant, which will also yield many big pods.
   The best seeds for sowing are those from the middle of the pod.
5. Sow the seeds as you remove them from the pod.
   Never keep the pods more than one week, otherwise the germ may die.
   If the germ is dead, the plant will not grow.
6. In some countries cocoa seeds are often sown directly in the plantation, that is, where the trees are to grow.
   But this is a bad way of sowing, for many of the plants will not grow, and you cannot choose the best seedlings.
   
   Take the best beans from the middle of the pod

SOWING SEEDS IN NURSERY BEDS OR IN BASKETS

9. A good grower should sow cocoa seeds in nursery beds:
   Choose a small plot, quite flat, with light and rich soil.
   If the site is near a little stream, watering will be easier.
   Till the soil fairly deeply, and break up all the lumps of earth so that you get a fine tilth.
   Make beds of soil 120 centimetres wide:
   
   • Leave a little path of 60 centimetres between one bed and the next, so that you can walk between the beds.
   • Take a piece of string and mark out little furrows in each bed.
   • Leave 25 centimetres between one furrow and the next.
   • In each furrow, leave 25 centimetres between seeds.
   Do not push the seed in too deeply, otherwise it will not have enough air and will not grow well.
   
   Nursery bed for cocoa tree seedlings

Cocoa seeds can also be sown En baskets or bags.

10. When the seedlings are lifted from the nursery bed, the roots may break and little earth remains around the roots.
    To avoid this, water the beds before lifting the seedlings.
    Sometimes the young seedlings do not grow well and do not gain much height.
    Some of them die.
11. To make the cocoa trees grow better, sow your seeds in small baskets or polyethylene bags.
    These baskets or bags can be about 30 centimetres high and 20 centimetres wide.
    Fill them with fine soil mixed with manure.
    Put the baskets or bags in rows and leave a little path between the rows.
    
    Young cocoa tree in a basket

You should take good care of the seedlings In seed beds or baskets.

12. Young cocoa tree seedlings are very delicate;
    you must protect them from the sun.
    Put them in the shade.
    In order to protect the seed beds or the baskets from the sun put up a screen 180 centimetres high above each bed.
    You can cover this screen with palm fronds.
    Young seedlings need a lot of water.
    Water them every day.
    Remove the weeds which take nourishment away from the seedlings.
    Look for insects and kill them, pull out diseased plants and burn them.
    Cocoa seed bed under a screen
    

LIFTING SEEDLINGS FROM NURSERY BEDS

13. Six months after sowing, when the seedlings have two leaves, take the young cocoa tree seedlings out of the nursery beds.
    If you wait too long, the seedlings will be too old and will not grow so easily.
    Remove the seedlings from the nursery beds with a spade.
    Be very careful not to break the roots.
    Sort out the young cocoa seedlings.
    Throw away diseased seedlings and badly grown seedlings.
    Use only the healthiest seedlings.
14. If you have sown your seeds in baskets, place the baskets in holes dug in the plantation.
    There is no need to remove the basket, as it will rot in the earth.
    If you have sown your seeds in polyethylene bags, remove the bag.
    Place the ball of earth with the seedling into the hole.

3. • 
     

     CHOOSING SEEDS AND GROWING SEEDLINGS

   • The grower can buy at research centres
     
     • either selected seeds of good quality
       He sows the seeds in a nursery bed or in baskets. Later, he plants out the seedlings in the plantation.
     • or young seedlings of good quality
       He plants them straight away in the plantation.
   • But some growers have no research centre nearby.
     They can nevertheless have good cocoa plantations by:
     
     • choosing their own seeds,
     • sowing their seeds in a nursery bed,
     • planting out their seedlings in the plantation.
     Nursery bed is the name for the place where the seeds are sown to make them germinate.

   CHOOSING SEEDS

   If you want to have fine cocoa trees which produce a lot of big pods, you must choose carefully the seeds you are going to sow.
4. If you choose your own seeds:
   
   • choose the biggest pods from the trees which bear a lot of fruit.
   The good quality of the tree and of the seed enters into the new plant, which will also yield many big pods.
   The best seeds for sowing are those from the middle of the pod.
5. Sow the seeds as you remove them from the pod.
   Never keep the pods more than one week, otherwise the germ may die.
   If the germ is dead, the plant will not grow.
6. In some countries cocoa seeds are often sown directly in the plantation, that is, where the trees are to grow.
   But this is a bad way of sowing, for many of the plants will not grow, and you cannot choose the best seedlings.
   
   Take the best beans from the middle of the pod

SOWING SEEDS IN NURSERY BEDS OR IN BASKETS

9. A good grower should sow cocoa seeds in nursery beds:
   Choose a small plot, quite flat, with light and rich soil.
   If the site is near a little stream, watering will be easier.
   Till the soil fairly deeply, and break up all the lumps of earth so that you get a fine tilth.
   Make beds of soil 120 centimetres wide:
   
   • Leave a little path of 60 centimetres between one bed and the next, so that you can walk between the beds.
   • Take a piece of string and mark out little furrows in each bed.
   • Leave 25 centimetres between one furrow and the next.
   • In each furrow, leave 25 centimetres between seeds.
   Do not push the seed in too deeply, otherwise it will not have enough air and will not grow well.
   
   Nursery bed for cocoa tree seedlings

Cocoa seeds can also be sown En baskets or bags.

10. When the seedlings are lifted from the nursery bed, the roots may break and little earth remains around the roots.
    To avoid this, water the beds before lifting the seedlings.
    Sometimes the young seedlings do not grow well and do not gain much height.
    Some of them die.
11. To make the cocoa trees grow better, sow your seeds in small baskets or polyethylene bags.
    These baskets or bags can be about 30 centimetres high and 20 centimetres wide.
    Fill them with fine soil mixed with manure.
    Put the baskets or bags in rows and leave a little path between the rows.
    
    Young cocoa tree in a basket

You should take good care of the seedlings In seed beds or baskets.

12. Young cocoa tree seedlings are very delicate;
    you must protect them from the sun.
    Put them in the shade.
    In order to protect the seed beds or the baskets from the sun put up a screen 180 centimetres high above each bed.
    You can cover this screen with palm fronds.
    Young seedlings need a lot of water.
    Water them every day.
    Remove the weeds which take nourishment away from the seedlings.
    Look for insects and kill them, pull out diseased plants and burn them.
    Cocoa seed bed under a screen
    

LIFTING SEEDLINGS FROM NURSERY BEDS

13. Six months after sowing, when the seedlings have two leaves, take the young cocoa tree seedlings out of the nursery beds.
    If you wait too long, the seedlings will be too old and will not grow so easily.
    Remove the seedlings from the nursery beds with a spade.
    Be very careful not to break the roots.
    Sort out the young cocoa seedlings.
    Throw away diseased seedlings and badly grown seedlings.
    Use only the healthiest seedlings.
14. If you have sown your seeds in baskets, place the baskets in holes dug in the plantation.
    There is no need to remove the basket, as it will rot in the earth.
    If you have sown your seeds in polyethylene bags, remove the bag.
    Place the ball of earth with the seedling into the hole.
    
    

    CHOOSING AND PREPARING THE PLANTATION SITE

    CHOOSING THE SITE

15. If a cocoa tree is to grow well, it needs more than anything else a soil
    
    • of good structure,
    • permeable and deep.
    The cocoa tree has tap-roots.
    The tap-root descends straight into the soil.
    The branch roots go down very deep.
    But many small branch roots also grow near the surface.
    If the soil is of good structure and contains much humus, the roots penetrate well.
    You can improve the soil structure by spreading manure and working it into the soil.
    If the soil is deep, the roots can go down to a good depth.
    Never plant cocoa trees in soil with a lot of stones, or in soil where there is some hard layer.
    

CLEARING THE SITE

16. In Africa, cocoa is grown in forest regions.
    To make a plantation, you must clear the site.
    But the cocoa tree needs shade, especially when it is young.
17. The traditional method is to cut down all the trees and to burn everything.
    But this is a bad method because:
    
    • You destroy all the organic matter in the weeds, the leaves and the branches.
    • You leave the soil bare to the sun or rain.
    • The soil becomes less fertile.
    • The cocoa trees are not protected from the sun when it is too strong.
18. Sometimes growers put banana trees or taros into the cocoa plantation, to give shade for the young cocoa trees. If these are planted long enough before the cocoa trees, they give good protection.
    But if they are planted at the same time as the cocoa trees, they do not protect the young cocoa trees well enough and they take nourishment out of the soil.
19. To give shade it Is better to keep a few of the forest trees.
    You should cut first all the tall weeds, the creepers and the small trees.
    Make heaps of what you have cut down and arrange the heaps in rows.
    It is better not to burn all the vegetation you cut.
    Leave it on the ground.
    It protects the soil against erosion and sun.
    It rots and makes humus.
    If you have to burn the vegetation you have cut, you must sow a cover crop.
20. Next, go through the plantation a second time:
    Now cut down all the trees which might give some disease to the cocoa trees.
    And cut down also all trees that give too much shade.
    But leave those large trees which can give no disease to the cocoa trees, and which give a little shade.
    When the cocoa trees have grown taller, they need less shade.
    You should gradually give them less and less shade.
    You should prune the big trees and cut off those branches that cast too much shade.
    When the plantation is well cared for, you can cut down all the big trees.
    When the cocoa trees have grown, it is better to get rid of the unwanted shade trees by using tree-killing chemical products. This way causes less damage than cutting them down.
21. In Cameroon, for example,
    
    • Farmers always remove the following trees:
      

      Local name	Botanical name
      Atui	Piptadeniastrum africanum
      Tôm	Erythrophloeum guineense
      Ebaé	Pentaclethra macrophylla
      Eyen	Distemonanthus benthamianus
      Asam	Uapaca staudtii
      Abem	Macrolobium or Berlinia
      Esabem	Macrolobium limba
      Engôkôm	Myrianthus arboreus
      Aseng	Musanga cecropioides

      
      
    • Leave in the plantation:
      

      Akom	Terminalia superba
      Atol	Ficus vogeliana
      Evouvous	Albizzia ferruginea
      Esak	Albizzia fastigiata
      Ekouk	Alstonia boonei
      Eteng	Pycnanthus kombo

      
      
22. In Ivory Coast
    
    • Farmers always remove the following trees:
      

      Dabema	Piptadeniastrum africanum
      Samba	Triplochiton scleroxylon
      Bâla	Childovia sanguinea
      Aiya, Kotibé	Nesogordonia papaverifera
      Cola	Cola nitida
      Ehéman	Corynanthe pachyceras
      Cakoua	Cola spp.
      Ntaba
      Akeato
      Aoussou
      Boto, Kotokié	Sterculia tragacantha
      Fromager	Ceiba pentandra
      Akogaouan, Oba	Bombax spp.
      Grand Wounian	Myrianthus preussi
      Bléblendou	Treculia africana
      Inékichébi	Rauwolfia vomitoria
      Glagla	Conopharyngia

      
      
    • Leave in the plantation:
      

      Adashia	Trema guineensis
      Iroko	Chlorophora excelsa
      Figuiers	Ficus
      Ouangrain	Allophylus africanus
      Sipo, Tiama	Entandro phragma
      Pri, Pousso oué	Funtumia
      Abalo	Combretodendron africanum
      Emien	Alstonia boonei
      Minghi, Bahé	Fagara
      Oualébé Ndéa	Pycnanthus angolensis
      Fraké, Framiré	Terminalia
      Akoua	Antrocaryon micraster
      Parasolier	Musanga cecropioides
      Loloti	Lannea welwitschii
      Tchikué, Tchikuébi	Bridelia

PREPARING TO PLANT COCOA TREES

23. With traditional methods, planting is most often done in a haphazard way.
    The cocoa trees are not planted in rows.
    There is not the same distance between them.
    When the trees are too far apart, they do not use all the soil; when they are too close, they grow badly.
    Instead, you should always plant in rows.
    First mark the rows for the cocoa trees, leaving about 2.5 to 3 metres between rows.
    Along each row, mark out with pegs the spots where the cocoa trees are to go.
    Leave about 2.5 to 3 metres between trees.
    In this way you can plant about 1 000 to 1 600 seedlings per hectare.
24. Digging the holes
    Before planting cocoa trees, the grower must dig holes in order to stir the earth and loosen it.
    Dig the holes two months before planting the cocoa trees.
    When you are digging the hole, do not mix together the soil from above and the soil from below:
    Make two separate heaps.

PLANTING COCOA TREES IN A PLANTATION

Sometimes growers sow cocoa seeds straight away in the plantation.
This is a bad thing to do.

It is better to put into the plantation
either young cocoa seedlings from your own nursery beds,
or cocoa seedlings bought from a research centre.

25. A few hours before lifting the seedlings from the nursery beds, water the soil.
    Then take the seedlings out of the nursery beds with a spade or a hoe.
    Be very careful not to break the roots.
    Next sort out the cocoa seedlings.
    Throw away diseased plants and plants that have a twisted tap-root.
    You can dip the roots of the seedlings in liquid mud, so that the cocoa plants take root again easily.
26. When to plant cocoa trees
    Plant cocoa trees at the beginning of the rainy season.
    Choose a day when the soil is moist and when the sky is cloudy.
    Plant the young cocoa trees when they are about 6 months old.
27. How to plant cocoa trees
    A few days before planting, fill in the holes you have dug.
    At the bottom of the hole, put the soil you have dug out from the top, and on top put the soil you have dug out from below.
    You may mix the soil with manure.
    When you are ready to plant, make a small hole.
    In this small hole place your young cocoa seedling.
    If you have sown your seeds in baskets or bags, make a hole big enough to hold the root ball with the cocoa seedling.
    Be very careful not to twist the tap-root.
    Do not cover the crown with earth.
    Pack the soil down well around the tap-root.
    For the first few days, protect the cocoa seedling from the sun.
    If there are palm trees in your village, use a palm frond.

13. CHOOSING AND PREPARING THE PLANTATION SITE

    CHOOSING THE SITE

14. If a cocoa tree is to grow well, it needs more than anything else a soil
    
    • of good structure,
    • permeable and deep.
    The cocoa tree has tap-roots.
    The tap-root descends straight into the soil.
    The branch roots go down very deep.
    But many small branch roots also grow near the surface.
    If the soil is of good structure and contains much humus, the roots penetrate well.
    You can improve the soil structure by spreading manure and working it into the soil.
    If the soil is deep, the roots can go down to a good depth.
    Never plant cocoa trees in soil with a lot of stones, or in soil where there is some hard layer.
    

CLEARING THE SITE

16. In Africa, cocoa is grown in forest regions.
    To make a plantation, you must clear the site.
    But the cocoa tree needs shade, especially when it is young.
17. The traditional method is to cut down all the trees and to burn everything.
    But this is a bad method because:
    
    • You destroy all the organic matter in the weeds, the leaves and the branches.
    • You leave the soil bare to the sun or rain.
    • The soil becomes less fertile.
    • The cocoa trees are not protected from the sun when it is too strong.
18. Sometimes growers put banana trees or taros into the cocoa plantation, to give shade for the young cocoa trees. If these are planted long enough before the cocoa trees, they give good protection.
    But if they are planted at the same time as the cocoa trees, they do not protect the young cocoa trees well enough and they take nourishment out of the soil.
19. To give shade it Is better to keep a few of the forest trees.
    You should cut first all the tall weeds, the creepers and the small trees.
    Make heaps of what you have cut down and arrange the heaps in rows.
    It is better not to burn all the vegetation you cut.
    Leave it on the ground.
    It protects the soil against erosion and sun.
    It rots and makes humus.
    If you have to burn the vegetation you have cut, you must sow a cover crop.
20. Next, go through the plantation a second time:
    Now cut down all the trees which might give some disease to the cocoa trees.
    And cut down also all trees that give too much shade.
    But leave those large trees which can give no disease to the cocoa trees, and which give a little shade.
    When the cocoa trees have grown taller, they need less shade.
    You should gradually give them less and less shade.
    You should prune the big trees and cut off those branches that cast too much shade.
    When the plantation is well cared for, you can cut down all the big trees.
    When the cocoa trees have grown, it is better to get rid of the unwanted shade trees by using tree-killing chemical products. This way causes less damage than cutting them down.
21. In Cameroon, for example,
    
    • Farmers always remove the following trees:
      

      Local name	Botanical name
      Atui	Piptadeniastrum africanum
      Tôm	Erythrophloeum guineense
      Ebaé	Pentaclethra macrophylla
      Eyen	Distemonanthus benthamianus
      Asam	Uapaca staudtii
      Abem	Macrolobium or Berlinia
      Esabem	Macrolobium limba
      Engôkôm	Myrianthus arboreus
      Aseng	Musanga cecropioides

      
      
    • Leave in the plantation:
      

      Akom	Terminalia superba
      Atol	Ficus vogeliana
      Evouvous	Albizzia ferruginea
      Esak	Albizzia fastigiata
      Ekouk	Alstonia boonei
      Eteng	Pycnanthus kombo

      
      
22. In Ivory Coast
    
    • Farmers always remove the following trees:
      

      Dabema	Piptadeniastrum africanum
      Samba	Triplochiton scleroxylon
      Bâla	Childovia sanguinea
      Aiya, Kotibé	Nesogordonia papaverifera
      Cola	Cola nitida
      Ehéman	Corynanthe pachyceras
      Cakoua	Cola spp.
      Ntaba
      Akeato
      Aoussou
      Boto, Kotokié	Sterculia tragacantha
      Fromager	Ceiba pentandra
      Akogaouan, Oba	Bombax spp.
      Grand Wounian	Myrianthus preussi
      Bléblendou	Treculia africana
      Inékichébi	Rauwolfia vomitoria
      Glagla	Conopharyngia

      
      
    • Leave in the plantation:
      

      Adashia	Trema guineensis
      Iroko	Chlorophora excelsa
      Figuiers	Ficus
      Ouangrain	Allophylus africanus
      Sipo, Tiama	Entandro phragma
      Pri, Pousso oué	Funtumia
      Abalo	Combretodendron africanum
      Emien	Alstonia boonei
      Minghi, Bahé	Fagara
      Oualébé Ndéa	Pycnanthus angolensis
      Fraké, Framiré	Terminalia
      Akoua	Antrocaryon micraster
      Parasolier	Musanga cecropioides
      Loloti	Lannea welwitschii
      Tchikué, Tchikuébi	Bridelia

PREPARING TO PLANT COCOA TREES

23. With traditional methods, planting is most often done in a haphazard way.
    The cocoa trees are not planted in rows.
    There is not the same distance between them.
    When the trees are too far apart, they do not use all the soil; when they are too close, they grow badly.
    Instead, you should always plant in rows.
    First mark the rows for the cocoa trees, leaving about 2.5 to 3 metres between rows.
    Along each row, mark out with pegs the spots where the cocoa trees are to go.
    Leave about 2.5 to 3 metres between trees.
    In this way you can plant about 1 000 to 1 600 seedlings per hectare.
24. Digging the holes
    Before planting cocoa trees, the grower must dig holes in order to stir the earth and loosen it.
    Dig the holes two months before planting the cocoa trees.
    When you are digging the hole, do not mix together the soil from above and the soil from below:
    Make two separate heaps.

PLANTING COCOA TREES IN A PLANTATION

Sometimes growers sow cocoa seeds straight away in the plantation.
This is a bad thing to do.

It is better to put into the plantation
either young cocoa seedlings from your own nursery beds,
or cocoa seedlings bought from a research centre.

25. A few hours before lifting the seedlings from the nursery beds, water the soil.
    Then take the seedlings out of the nursery beds with a spade or a hoe.
    Be very careful not to break the roots.
    Next sort out the cocoa seedlings.
    Throw away diseased plants and plants that have a twisted tap-root.
    You can dip the roots of the seedlings in liquid mud, so that the cocoa plants take root again easily.
26. When to plant cocoa trees
    Plant cocoa trees at the beginning of the rainy season.
    Choose a day when the soil is moist and when the sky is cloudy.
    Plant the young cocoa trees when they are about 6 months old.
27. How to plant cocoa trees
    A few days before planting, fill in the holes you have dug.
    At the bottom of the hole, put the soil you have dug out from the top, and on top put the soil you have dug out from below.
    You may mix the soil with manure.
    When you are ready to plant, make a small hole.
    In this small hole place your young cocoa seedling.
    If you have sown your seeds in baskets or bags, make a hole big enough to hold the root ball with the cocoa seedling.
    Be very careful not to twist the tap-root.
    
    Do not cover the crown with earth.
    Pack the soil down well around the tap-root.
    For the first few days, protect the cocoa seedling from the sun.
    If there are palm trees in your village, use a palm frond.

    TAKING CARE OF THE PLANTATION

28. When the cocoa trees have been planted, the work is not finished.
    The grower still has a lot of work to do to look after his cocoa trees.
    A grower who does not look after his plantation properly cannot harvest big pods and will not earn much money.
    To look after your plantation properly you must:
    
    • Replace seedlings that have not grown
    • Remove weeds and keep the soil covered
    • Prune the cocoa trees
    • Apply fertilizer
    • Protect the cocoa trees from insects and diseases.

REPLACING MISSING SEEDLINGS

29. Sometimes certain cocoa seedlings do not grow well. They remain small or die.
    During the months following the day when you planted your seedlings, you must always look to see whether the cocoa trees are growing well.
    If you see diseased or dead cocoa trees, pull them out and burn them, and also those encircling them in case of swollen shoot disease (see paragraph 42). In their place, plant other young cocoa seedlings, from among those that you have kept in the nursery bed or in baskets.

WEEDING AND SOIL COVER

30. Many weeds grow among the cocoa tree rows.
    You must not let weeds take nourishment away from the cocoa trees.
    When the cocoa trees are young, you should weed 4 or 5 times every year.
    When the cocoa trees are bigger, they cast a lot of shade and so few weeds will grow.
    It will be enough to weed once a year.
    When you are cultivating be very careful not to damage the trunk and roots of the cocoa trees.
31. Between the rows of cocoa trees, you should not leave the soil bare.
    You should cover the soil either with cut weeds or with palm fronds, if available.
    In this way the soil is protected against sun and erosion; it stays moist and cool.
    When the weeds rot, they give the soil organic matter.
    You can also sow a cover crop, for Instance legumes.
    This will give the soil good protection against sun and erosion.
    

PRUNING COCOA TREES

32. The cocoa tree is a tree that develops well.
    It has a single, straight trunk.
    A crown of 3 to 5 main branches forms about 1.5 metres above ground level.
33. Sometimes, during the first year, several shoots form on the trunk.
    Cut off these shoots and leave only the strongest.
    Sometimes the crown forms too low down, at less than 1 metre above ground level.
    Choose a shoot which grows straight up and let it develop.
    A new crown will then form at a good height, and the first crown will stop growing.
    

    Young well-grown cocoa tree
    Young cocoa tree with two shoots	Cocoa tree which forms its crown too low down

    
    
34. Always cut out all dead branches, dry twigs and suckers.
    A sucker is a twig that grows upward out of the trunk.
    Cut off the suckers very close to the trunk.
    
35. When a cocoa tree gets old, it no longer yields many pods.
    But you can make cocoa trees young again by letting one or two suckers grow low down on the trunk where they can develop their own roots.
    Then cut down the old trunk, and you will again have a cocoa tree that yields many pods.
    

APPLYING FERTILIZERS

Fertilizers cost a lot of money.
So the grower should use fertilizers only when this will make him earn more money.

36. When you have tended your cocoa trees, when you have hoed the weeds, then you should apply fertilizer.
    Spread fertilizer around each cocoa tree, but be careful not to put any on the trunk, the branches or the leaves of the cocoa tree: otherwise the fertilizer will burn the tree.
    Spread the fertilizer in a ring around the trunk at a distance of about 1 metre from it, where most of its small roots are.
    Apply fertilizer twice a year: in April and September.
    
37. It Is useless to apply fertilizers in a plantation that is not well cared for.
    A grower who does not prune his cocoa trees and who does not hoe the weeds should not apply any fertilizer.
    If the plantation is not cared for properly, fertilizers do nothing except feed the trunks of the cocoa trees, the suckers and the weeds.
    The grower loses his money.
38. Different soils have different fertilizer needs.
    Ask the extension service how much fertilizer to use.
    For example, in Ivory Coast:
    
    • on the more sandy soils, along the coast, use compound fertilizer, which contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash: fertilizer formula 13-10-15;
    • on the more granitic soils of the interior, use another compound fertilizer: formula 12-15-18.
    The quantities for each tree are as follows:
    
    • during the first two years:
      in April: 125 grammes;
      in September: 125 grammes.
    • during the third year and from then on:
      in April: 250 grammes;
      in September: 250 grammes.

PROTECTION FROM INSECTS AND DISEASES

The most dangerous insects are the following:

39. Capsids
    These insects prick the twigs and pods.
    At the place where they make a hole, the tree dries out and the sap no longer circulates.
    Young trees attacked by capsids often die.
    To control capsids, use Lindane or Aldrin.
40. Borers
    The larvae of these insects bore holes in the trunk or branches.
    You can control borers with DDT or Dieldrin.
    

    Capsid	Borer

The most dangerous diseases that attack cocoa trees are the following:

41. Black pod disease
    This is caused by a fungus which chiefly attacks the pods.
    If attacked, the pods rot and die.
    Control this disease by picking off diseased pods and burning them.
    You can prevent the disease from spreading by spraying the sound pods with copper preparations.
42. Swollen shoot disease
    This is a very serious disease, which has caused much damage in Ghana.
    You will see that the leaves are mottled. Sometimes some twigs become very thick and the tree soon dies.
    
    

    HARVESTING THE PODS

43. The tree makes its first flowers after two years. But in order not to tire the tree, you should cut off the first flowers.
    From these you will therefore get no fruit.
    There are two harvests each year: a small harvest at the beginning of the rainy season, a big harvest at the end of the rainy season.
44. Do not pick all the pods at the same time.
    Pick only pods that are ripe, whether yellow or red.
    Leave on the tree any pods that are not ripe, that are still a little green.
    Go through the plantation every fortnight to pick the ripe pods.
    Never pick the pods by pulling them off: if you do, you will spoil your tree.
    You should cut the stem of the pod with a machete.
    

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41.