Vanilla

Vanilla fragrans
Family – Orchidaceae

 History

Vanilla is an economically important crop as it is the source of natural vanillin. It is believed that vanilla is indigenous to north eastern Mexico. It is ancient Totonaco Indians of Mexico who were the first keepers of the secrets of vanilla. When they were defeated by the Aztecs they were demanded to relinquish their exotic fruit, vanilla pods. Later Aztecs were defeated by the Spanish and Spaniard Hernando Cortez, the Spanish mariner, returned to Spain with the precious plunder vanilla beans which were combined with cacao to make an unusual and pleasing drink. For eighty years this special beverage was only enjoyed by the nobility and the very rich. Then in 1602 Hugh Morgan, Apothecary to Queen Elizabeth I, suggested that vanilla could be used as a flavoring all by it self and versatility of the exotic bean was finally uncovered. However only in 1858 Gobley was able to isolate vanillin from vanilla pods. Today vanilla is grown by Madagaskar, Indonesia, Mexico, Thahiti and few other countries including Sri Lanka as a commercial crop.
 

Products and Uses

Vanillin is the main product extracted from vanilla. It is used as a flavor ingredient in confectionery industry, perfumery and pharmaceutical industries.
 

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka vanilla is mainly confined as a home garden crop grown in mid and low country wet zone. Total extent is less than 100ha. and main growing areas are Kandy, Nuweraeliya,Matale and Kegalle ditricts.
 

Varieties

No specific varieties have been identified in Sri Lanka and planting material is taken from traditionally grown vines.
 

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
High fertile well drained loamy soils are preferable. Soils should be rich in organic matter. 

Climate
Altitude - Vanilla performs well up to 1000m above the mean sea level.
Temperature – 21-32 0C is suitable. But Vanilla performs well at 27 0C
Rainfall – 2000-2500 mm. But 2-3 months dry spell is needed for flower initiation.
 

Crop establishment

Planting material
Vegetative methods are practiced. Cuttings, 3’-4.5’ (1-1.5m) in size, are obtained from selected mother vines. Lower end of the cuttings should be closer to the node and 3-4 leaves should be removed from the lower end. To induce buds cuttings should be hanged on a support for about 7 days.

Field Planting
Vanilla is a shade loving plant hence live support trees are used to provide adequate shade (50-60%). Glyricidia is the most suitable shade tree and support trees should be established at least six months before planting vanilla.
Spacing – 3m x 1.5 m (10’ x 5’) (2000 cuttings / ha)
Planting should be done with the on set of rain. Loosen the soil around the base of support up to 8’’ deep in and area of about 2’ in diameter. Then add 2-3 basket of organic manure. Make a furrow 10 (4’’) deep (from support tree and across the surface of planting pit.) and place the cutting horizontally in the furrow leaving 3 cm from lower cut end jutting out into air . Cuttings should be buried firmly with upturned soil. The upper end of the cutting is tied up on to the support tree and mulching should be done up to thickness of 7.5 – 15 cm using decayed organic matter.

 

Crop management

Training of vines -
When cuttings start to grow emerging axial buds should be trained to turn vines to grow upward direction. When vines reach top of the support tree they should be allowed to droop. When reached to ground let them to grow on soil further 30 -45 cm (1-1.5’) and then curl the stem upwards and allow the buds to grow up again on the support tree. This process should be repeated until vines form several loops. Ground area of loops should be covered with organic manure.

Stimulate flowering –
To get the maximum number of flowers flowering should be induced artificially. Usually this practice is done in January. For that 5-7 nodes are removed from the tip of drooped matured branches. To get 70-80% sunlight shade trees too should be pruned. .

Manuring-
Usually artificial fertilizer is not applied to vanilla but organic fertilizer is essential.  Compost should be applied at the beginning of each rainy season. Plants should be mulched at least once in six month with dry or fresh leaves and lopping of shade trees. 

Pollination-
In vanilla artificial pollination is essential as the natural pollination rarely produce pods. Flower is self-fertile, but incapable of self-pollination without the aid of an outside agency to either transfer the pollen from the anther to the stigma or to lift the flap or rostellum and press the anther against the stigma. Usually flowers come out in April-/ May period and flowers are small lily like, greenish-yellow in colour. There are about 20 flowers in a raceme. Usually, only one flower in a raceme opens in a day, with the entire flowering period of the raceme lasting an average of 24 days. The flower opens in the morning and closes in the afternoon, never to re-open. If it is not pollinated, it will shed the next day. The optimum time for pollination is in mid morning.
 

Crop Protection

No economically important pests and diseases have been reported
 

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting –
Pods reach maturity after 8-9 months from pollination. Harvesting mainly falls in December- January.  Ideal stage is when tip of the green pods start turning yellow and before split opened of the lower end of pods. In harvesting only mature pods should be e harvested. To make one kg of pods 70 -100 well ripened pods are needed and 6 kg of raw pods are needed to make 1kg of cured pods. Pods must atleast be longer than 6cm and better quality pods must be longer than 10cm. To get quality bulk of pods small pods ( Less tan 10 cm long) should be removed from the plants 2 months after pollination and allow only 8-10 pods in a bunch and remove all other pods. Pods should be plucked by turning upright and should not be used pair of scissors or knife to avoid fungus formed in cut end.
Yield – After 3 years of planting 500 – 800 kg/ha and peak yield level at 8years
Processing
There are several methods of processing but basic steps in each and every method are same. Those steps are

• Killing or Wilting – Initiates the on set of enzymatic reactions responsible for the production of aroma and flavor. Pods become brown in color.

• Sweating - Increase the temperature to promote the enzymatic reactions and to provoke fairly rapid drying to prevent harmful fermentations, Develop deep brown coloration of pods.
• Drying – Slow drying. Beans reach to one-third of their original weight
• Conditioning – Store in closed boxes for a period of three months or longer to permit the full development of desired aroma and flavor

The aroma and flavor of the cured vanilla bean/pod are the characteristics that determine the bean’s commercial value on the world market. Processing should be done carefully to preserve the maximum aroma and flavor as well as the physical appearance. Once the mature vanilla beans have been picked, they are taken to the curing and sorted according to size and condition. Sorted beans are plunged into large vats of hot water (63 degrees Celsius) and quickly drained. The warm beans are wrapped in dark colored cotton fabric and after a day they are laid on slatted platforms to dry in the open sun for an hour. For about a week, the beans are left for two hours a day to dry in the sun and rolled in cloth between drying session. At this stage the vanilla beans have become quite supple. For the next two or three months the vanilla beans are spread on racks in the shade or in well-ventilated rooms to allow their full flavor and fragrance to develop. After the curing process, vanilla beans are sorted in an open airy place and graded according to length before they are bundled for shipment. By this time, their aroma is quite remarkable.

Standard quality specifications
Length of pods – between 17-25cm
Smell - Inherited vanilla smell
Color – Dark brown or black color
Appearance - Shiny oily surface
Lack of insect attacks or other patches
Cleanness – Lack of extraneous matter, animal o plant parts or insects
Moisture – around 25%-30%

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Though there are many compounds presents in the extracts of vanilla, Vanillin (4-hydroxi-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is primarily responsible for the characteristic flavor and smell of vanilla. However there are hundreds of minor compounds in vanilla extract. Main compound in vanilla oil is piperonal (heliotropin)

COCONUT CULTIVATION IN SRILANKA

The Coconut Research Institute (CRI), currently recommends the following planting materials.

Tall X Tall (CRIC 60) improved variety
	Tall X Tall cross
	Flowers in 5-6 years
	Suitable for all coconut growing areas
	Production capacity:
		12,000 nuts/ha/year
		3.5 Mt copra/ha/year
Dwarf X Tall (CRIC 65) hybrid
	Dwarf X Tall cross
	Flowers in 3-4 years
	Specially recommended for home gardens
	Production capacity:
		Exceed 20,000 nuts/ha/year
		5 Mt of copra/ha/year
Tall X San ramon (SRISL 98) hybrid
	Tall X San Ramon cross
	Large nut size and high copra productivity
	Suitable for all ecological growing areas
Moorock tall
	Estate selected tall variety
	Recommended for wet zone
Plus palm
	Seedlings obtained from selected palms Optimum density 158 palms/ha 64 - 65 palms/ac Monoculture Square system Spacing No. of seedlings Meters Feet Per ha Per ac 8.0 x 8.0 26 x26 158 64 Triangular system Spacing No. of seedlings Meters Feet Per ha Per ac 8.5 x 8.5 x 8.5 28 x 28 x 28 158 64 Rectangular system Spacing No. of seedlings Meters Feet Per ha Per ac 7.3 x 8.5 24 x28 164 65 Inter-cropping system Spacing No. of seedlings Meters Feet Per ha Per ac 7.3 x 9.2 24 x30 149 61 7.3 x 11.1 24 x 32 140 57

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.,)


 Introduction :

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.,) is an important cash crop cultivated in India. In Goa, sugarcane is presently grown over an area of approximately 912 ha. The annual production of cane in Goa is about 49,108 tonnes with an average productivity of 53-55 mt/ha with a recovery of 8.5 per cent, which is very low. Goa has a sugar factory with a crushing capacity of 1.75 to 2.00 lakh tonnes of cane annually. Thus the present availability of cane meets less than half of the requirement of the factory. This deficit is met by bringing cane form neighbouring states, which is not only uneconomical but detrimental to the interest of local growers. Thus, there is tremendous scope to produce the cane locally by adopting improved technology package strategy. Further, there is a scope for bringing additional area under this cash crop especially in command areas of Salaulim and Anjunem irrigation projects.
 Stepping up per unit productivity of both plant as well as ratoon cane atleast  to a minimum level of 100 mt/ha is possible  by following sound management practices and making available all the critical inputs like quality planting material, irrigation water, machinery in time and strengthening extension services.

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Land preparation :

Proper land preparation is very essential for good establishment and vigorous growth of the crop. Plough the field to a depth of 1.5 to 2 foot deep with the help of a tractor and expose it to hot sun for about a fortnight. Thereafter, crush the soil clumps so as to make it soft and friable. Then apply 10-12 tonnes of well decomposed cowdung manure or compost / ha and cross plough the field in opposite direction to the first ploughing to a depth of 30-50 cm. This will incorporate the manure into the soil. Then level the field to facilitate irrigation. After this, open the furrows with the help of a tractor drawn ridger at a distance of 90 cm. It has been observed that if the direction of the furrows is kept facing East-West, the crop grows luxuriantly and results in better sugar accumulation. Then the field is laid out in convenient plots depending on the slope of the land by bunding and providing irrigation channels. The length of rows may vary depending upon slope.

Before planting the setts, another 10-12 tonnes of compost/cow dung manure along with the basal dose of fertilizers (250 kg N 125 kg P2O5 and 150 kg K2O) are applied in the furrows at a depth of 10-12cm and the soil is mixed by light digging before planting. It should be remembered that addition of sufficient quantities of organic manures will not only improve the physical condition of soil but also increase the water retention capacity and such soils can withstand intermittent drought conditions due to water stress. Soils rich in organic content give higher yields and quality cane.

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planting :

Both wet method and dry method of planting can be adopted for growing cane. Wet planting is mostly done in low to medium fertile soils. In this method, the furrows are thoroughly irrigated and treated setts are placed 3-5 cm deep ensuring that all the eye buds face upwards. The simple technique is to place the thumb on the middle bud and press the sett in the wet furrow ensuring that the other two buds remain sideways facing upwards. In highly fertile soils, dry method of planting can be adopted. The setts are planted in dry furrows at  specified distances (end to end incase of 3 budded, 22 to 30 cm in case of 2 budded and 30-45 cm in case of one budded setts as described before) and covered with soil upto half the depth of furrow and the field is then irrigated. Subsequent earthing-up operations during top dressing of fertilizers in the ridges becoming furrows which serve as irrigation channels.

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Varieties :

This is one of the major factors which have direct bearing on the yield of sugarcane. While selecting any variety for planting, due attention ought to be paid to know details such as yield potential of the variety, tolerance to diseases like grassy shoot and 'whip smut', its tolerance to withstand water stress, etc. To enhance more sugar production in Goa, maximum area should be covered with high yielding and high sugar content varieties with multiple pest tolerance.
A number of varieties have been evaluated for their suitability at ICAR Research Complex for Goa. Results of earlier trials indicated a high yielding midlate variety viz. Co-7527 which has yielded 150 Mt/ha as plant cane and 100 Mt/ha as ratoon is better under Goa conditions. Popularization of this variety and its rapid multiplication and use would go a long way to increase the present production. C0- 85002 is another such variety suitable to Goa conditions with yield of 120-130 t/ha but the sugar recovery of the variety is only 8.3%. Further studies made to recommend suitable replacement for Co-740 indicated that an early duration variety CoC-671 is better both for higher yield and better recovery especially as a plant cane. Another variety Co-86032 is a midlate variety which is popular in Maharashtra (with coverage of nearly 42 % of the area) was found to be more consistent both for plant cane and ratoons with an average yield of 92.8 t/ha and sugar recovery of 9.95%. Efforts should be made to popularize this variety in Goa and bring maximum area under cultivation.

Variety	Duration (months)	Yield Potential  (t/ha)	Recovery (%)	Special Features
CO- 85002	10-11	120-130	8.00-8.5	High yielding, thick erect canes with partially hallow pith
Co- 740	11-12	70-80	8.00-9.00	Good ratooner, susceptible to pest and diseases
Co- 86032	11-12	90-100	9.0-9.5	High yielding, better recovery  with consistency in ratoon performance
CoC- 671	10-11	90-100	9.5-10.0	High tonnage with high recovery, good for plant cane
SNK-707	10-11	90-100	9.0-10.0	Drought tolerant and early
Co-7527	10-11	100-120	8.5-9.0	High yielding as plant cane
SNK- 632	10-11	120-140	8.0-8.5	Drought tolerant and early, stout canes with early side tillers
SNK-49	10-11	100-120	9.0-10.0	White wooly aphid tolerant

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Nutrient Management :

Sugarcane is a heavy feeder, since the crop remains in the field for about a year. It requires sufficient nutrition at various stages of its growth. The cane quality and yield is decided on the time, method of application and quantity of fertilizer applied. Fertilizers are expensive inputs and judicious use of this input becomes imperative. Sugarcane requires 250 kg N, 125 kg P2O5 and 150 kg K2O/ha under local conditions. However, the exact quantities of fertilizers to be applied to a particular field are decided on the basis of soil test report. The quantity of different fertilizers locally available and the time of their application/ha is given in Table. The farmers can choose from either straight fertilizers (NPK) or complex fertilizers i.e. Suphala and Uramphos as per their local availability. The fertilizers are placed below the setts and while top dressing they should be placed 8-10 cm away from rows and 6-8 cm deep in the soil and earthed up. The field should be irrigated on the next day. Application of Zinc to sugarcane has found to influence sugarcane yields. Experiments conducted at ICAR Research Complex have shown that application of 10 kg ZnSO4 / ha along with 300:150:150 kg NPK/ha recorded more cane height, weight, girth and yield. It resulted in about 9-12 per cent increase in yield over control. It is advisable to use Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) Culture along with organic manure/ compost @ 10 kg/ha for optimizing phosphorus uptake.

Table1. Quantity of individual fertilizers (kg/ha) and the time of their application  to meet recommended dosage (250 kg  N:125 kg P2O5:150  kg K2O /ha)

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Water Management :

This is the most important aspects of sugarcane for realizing higher productivity. The utility of water will be enhanced if the soil is rich in organic content. Water is a valuable commodity and its use should be made in a most appropriate manner. Moisture conservation methods like addition of adequate quantities of organic manure to soil and trash mulching of top soil @ 15 ton/ha helps in conserving soil moisture.
In general, sugarcane requires 120 to 140 acre inches of water including the rain water. In sandy loam soils, irrigate the channels and then take up planting. In clay soils, plant the setts first and then irrigate. During germination period (30-40 days), irrigate at 10-12 days interval at 5 cm depth. During tillering stage, the frequency of irrigation may be 8-10 days. In Goa, for a February planted crop, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 8-10 days till May, depending on soil type. In all, 12 to 14 irrigations are required till monsoon sets in. From October to December, 5-6 irrigations at an interval of 12-15 days may be given. In all about 18-20 irrigations are sufficient to raise a healthy crop. However, the following techniques would help in economizing frequent use of water:

• Addition of organic manure @ 20-25t/ha.
• Spreading sugarcane trash as soil mulch @ 15 t/ha.
• Giving irrigations through alternate furrows.
• Adopting paired row method for planting cane.
• Installing water saving modem irrigation systems such as sprinkler, drip or biwall.

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Weed Management :

Due to the slow initial growth of crop, the irrigation channels as well as ridges and inter row spaces get infested with variety of narrow and broad leaved weeds which pose a serious problem to cane growers, causing losses up to 60-70 per cent in neglected fields. The initial period of 2-3 months of the crop (depending on the variety) is very crucial for control of weeds. Use of sugarcane trash mulching is very effective in controlling weeds. The weeds are either manually removed during hoeing or are killed by use of herbicides. For narrow leaved weeds and grasses, spray 2 kg Atrazine dissolved in 100 litres of water, 4-5 days after planting when there is enough moisture in the soil. In case of heavy infestation, give second spray after 4-5 weeks. For controlling broad leaved weeds chemically, use 1.75 kg 2, 4-D after the emergence directing the spray on weeds.
Use of herbicides should be done in the morning or evening. The operator should walk in reverse direction to avoid trampling of the sprayed area. While spraying all the bunds, channels, ridges etc. should be adequately covered with herbicidal spray.

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Insect Pest Management :

Sugarcane in Goa is infested by following pests and diseases. Their nature of damage and control measures is suggested below:

1. Sugarcane Wooly Aphid:

 

          
Sugarcane woolly aphid is a foliage sucking pest. Wooly aphid earlier was known to be minor pest in India has now assumed the status of economic pest after its severe outbreak in Maharashtra during July 2002. It feeds on sugarcane by inserting their stylets through the stomata of the plants leaves. Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from lower surface of leaves. They suck the sap from phloem. They excrete large amount of honey dew which falls on the leaves giving them a sticky coating on which black sooty mould (Capnodium sp.) develops making the leaves look all black. Due to the thick coating of sooty mould process of photosynthesis is significantly hampered in severely infested plants, thereby causing considerable reduction in cane yield (25%) and sucrose content (26.71%), whereas, during the early growth period plants may die.
Management

• Use of wooly aphid tolerant varieties suitable foe Goa region such as SNK-49, SNK-44, SNK-61 and SNK-754.
• Soil application of Phorate 10G @ 10 kg or Carbofuron 3G @ 30 kg /ha in infested crop not more than six months old. The granule should applied with due precautions, along the row side at the base of the plant fallowed by light irrigation, if required.
• Foliar application of Dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.05%, Metasystox 25 EC @ 0.04%, Acephate 75 SP @ 0.1% and  Endosulphan 35 EC @0.05%.

2. Early shoot borer

This insect pest can cause up to 30% losses in sugarcane crop. Under Goa conditions, this pest is noticed from March to May. Hot climatic conditions and low humidity are the predisposing factors for spread of this pest. The female lays eggs in rows in straight lines on the under surface of leaves. The larvae after hatching bore a hole into the growing cane near to the soil surface and feeds on tender portion. This results in death of the central shoot by gradual drying.

Management

• Destroy all infested shoots.
• Spray the crop with 35% Endosulphan by mixing 14 ml in 10 litres of water 3-4 weeks after germination or spray 50% BHC @ 3 kg in 500 litre water twice at an interval of 10 days, or
•   Apply in furrows, 6% Gamma BHC (Lindane) @ 16 kg/ha and irrigate. This will also control termites.
• Avoid late planting of cane.
• Do adequate hoeing.
• Release of biological control agents such as Trichogramma eggs @ 5 lakh/ha or spray with 300 larvae infested with granulosis virus in 250 litres water.

3. Stem borer

The stalk borer in advanced stage infests the sugarcane crop as stem borer. This pest is found during tillering stage and beyond and it makes holes in the cane and feeds on inner contents. These holes are concealed under the dry leaves. The incidence of this pest is favoured by hot weather from February to May.
Management: Adequate control of early shoot borer will ensure crop free of this pest.

4. Scale insect

This pest infests the cane when the tillers start maturing. The nymphs and adults stick on the outer surface of cane and suck the sap, thus devitalizing the plant. The crop remains stunted and dries up. The spread of this pest is through infested setts, air and ants. This pest is more pronounced in ratoon crop. It causes 30-35 per cent weight loss and 2 to 3 cent  reduction in sugar recovery in heavily infested crop. Use of infested setts for planting, neglected ratoon, poor soil, water scarcity and draught in summer are some of the predisposing factors.
Management

• Do not use infested setts for planting.
• Infested cane should be harvested early and the trash burnt. No ratoon is advisable from such crop.
• Plough the field immediately, collect stubbles and burn them.
• Provide adequate irrigation.
• Treat the setts with 30% Dimethoate (Rogor) @ 265 ml or 85%Phosphomidon @ 80 ml or 50% Malathion @ 300 ml in 100 litres of water by dipping the setts for 3-4 minutes before planting.
• Use granular Phorate @ 10 kg/ha when tillering is over.

5. Termites
This insect pest damages the crop at two stages. Once when the setts are planted, when the worker class of termites feed on the tender eye bud resulting in poor germination. They also feed on cut ends of setts and cause germination losses. Later on when the cane is fully grown, they feed around basal portion as well as cane portion near ground. Their feeding results in drying of cane.
Management

• Locate the termetoria to locate the queen and destroy it.
• Apply 20% Gama BHC 5 litres in 1,000 litres water in furrows.

In addition to above, the sugarcane is also infested by sap sucking insect pests such as white flies and mealy bugs. These can be controlled by spraying any systemic insecticide.

6. Rats
A rat causes damage not only to sugarcane but many other crops. Burrowing of rats into water channel causes loss of water. The rats due to their gnawing habit causes 10% more damage to cane than by eating it. The site of damage is near the joints where the cane is hard. Their damage causes cane to dry and lose weight. Lodging of cane is many times attributed to burrowing of rats near the base.
Management: Identify the live burrows on bunds and in the fields. Baiting is necessary if Zinc   Phosphide is used.
More recently, ready to use rodenticide, Bromdiolone 0.005% (Moosh Moosh) or rattol is found to be an effective rat killer. Place 1-2 cakes in each live burrow along bunds, 2-4 weeks after planting. Cakes are also distributed in field after earthing up at 10-15 m interval. About 30-50 cakes are required for one acre. The rodent control work should be done on a collective basis rather than individually.

7. Wild boars
This is also a menace to sugarcane growers. This can be kept away by having battery operated fencing.

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Disease Management :

Eye spot
Causal organism: Drechslera sacchari (Helminthosporium sacchari)

Symptoms

• Elongate water- coloured lesions, roughly 1-2 mm in length and 0.5-1 mm in width, develop on the youngest leaves of affected plants, their long axes parallel with the leaf veins.
• Within a few days they increase five fold in size; their centres become chocolate brown in colour and occupy most of the areas of infection.
• Lesions extend from the points of primary infection towards the leaf tips. They pass through colour changes similar to those of the original lesion and turn from pale yellow to dark brown.
• In severe cases, growth is retarded and short internodes are formed.

Pineapple disease/ Sett Rot
Perfect state: Ceratocystis paradoxa (Imperfect state: Thielaviopsis paradoxa)

Symptoms

• The tissue, which at first turns red, remains firm; and smell of pineapple fruit might be noticed. Later, after the parenchyma has been destroyed, the interiors of the setts become black and hollow.
• Infected setts fail to germinate.

Pokkah boeng
Perfect state: Gibberella fujikuroi (Gibberella moniliformis) (Imperfect state: fusarium moniliforme)
Symptoms

•  
• The earliest symptoms are seen on the young leaves, which become chlorotic towards their bases, twisted and wrinkled, and are narrower and shorter than normal levels.
• Irregular reddish stripes develop within the chlorotic parts.
• If infection is limited to the leaves, the plants usually recover; if not, internal and external ladder-like lesions develop in the stems.
• In severe cases the growing-points die and rot.

Red rot
Perfect state: Glomerella tucumanensis (Physalospora tucumanensis) (Imperfect state: Colletotrichum falcatum)

External Symptoms

Internal Symptoms  

Symptoms

• The first symptoms of injury depend on the method of infection. If the fungus has gained entry into the stem through the nodes, wounds or pest injury, red rot will begin at those points and will extend slowly or rapidly depending on the resistance of the variety.
• If the infection is raising up the stems from underground parts, the vascular bundles will first turn red before the other tissue also becomes red, sometimes interrupted by white blotches.
• The sucrose content of the affected parts is greatly reduced.
• External symptoms appear only in the later stages of the disease when ill-defined red patches may appear on the rind before the stems dry out and shrink.
• In severe cases, establishment of young plant cane is affected.

Smut
Causal organism: Ustilago scitaminea 

Symptoms

• Formation of characteristic whip-like, pencil-thick unbranched structures from the apices of affected stem.
• Each structure comprises a core of parenchyma and fibrovascular elements surrounded by vast numbers of chlamydospores, enclosed at first in a thin, silvery sheath.
• Later, when the membranous covering splits, the exposed chlamydospores resemble a thick layer of soot. They are then dispersed, mainly by wind.
• Smut is transmitted in two ways: by windborne spores gaining entry into standing cane through the buds; and by spores in the soil, or in irrigation water, entering planted setts.
• Infected buds may develop quickly into whips, or the mycelia may remain dormant within the buds to form a latent source of disease if the stems are used as a seed-cane.

Ratoon stunting disease (RSD)
Causal organism: 

Symptoms
The external symptoms, uneven growth and an unthrifty general appearance, have no diagnostic value; and for several years RSD was thought to be without recognizable characteristics. Hughes Steindl, and Egan (1968), however, eventually found two internal symptoms sometimes associated with disease:

• In mature stems the leaf trace vascular bundles might become orange-red, but the discoloration does not extend into the internodes.
  
• In immature stems there might be a diffuse salmon-pink discoloration in the younger nodes, spreading into the parenchyma of the upper internodes.
  

Some varieties show neither symptom, some show both and some show one but not the other. Moreover, the intensity of their expression is influenced by physiological and climatic conditions.

Mosaic disease
Causal organism: Sugarcane mosaic virus

Symptoms

• Development of a typical pattern of elongated yellow chlorotic areas interspersed with similarly shaded patches of light and dark green.
• The loss of effective leaf area causes stunted growth, but the damage differs greatly according to the variety being growth and the strain of the virus.

Leaf scald
Causal organism: Xanthomonas albiliniens

Symptoms

• Pencil line like yellowish streaks on the leaves
• Scalding of leaves from margin to the centre

Yellow leaf disease (syndrome)
Causal organism: Sugarcane yellow leaf virus (SCYLV)

GSD
Causal organism:

Symptoms

• Profuse  tillering-thin papery white leaves
• Stunting and reduction of internodal length
• No millable cane formation

Wilt
Causal organism: Fusarium sacchari

Symptoms

• Foliar    : Yellowing , Withering, Drying
• Stalk drying
• Internal : Diffused purple or muddy colored pith

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Harvesting :

Sugarcane is ready for harvest in about 11-12 months after planting depending on the variety and the season. The mature cane is yellowish with prominent eye buds, giving a metallic sound if tapped with fingers. Similarly, it breaks at nodes if bent. But, the real indicator for determining the maturity is the brix reading taken with hand refractometer. If the reading shows 19 and above, the cane is mature and ready for harvest. The stand of subsequent ratoon crop depends on the correct manner of harvesting. The cane should be cut as close to the ground level as possible with the help of a sharp knife. Care should be taken to give a horizontal smooth cut without damaging the eye bud below the soil. If the cane is harvested above the ground, the yield is reduced, sugar is lost in the lower portion (as the lower portion contains more sugars) and there is lodging as well as poor tillering in the ratoon, since the buds sprout from above the ground and have no support. On the other hand, if the cane is cut below the ground, the lower eye bud is damaged and this badly affects germination. Use of improved 'Vikas' knife developed by Vasantdada Sugar Institute cuts the cane at right place with ease and gives a smooth cut thus avoiding the trouble of stubble shaving operation for ratoon crop

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Ratoon management:

In Goa, 65-70 per cent of area under sugarcane is retained as ratoon crop. Ratooning offers many advantages in the economy of cultivation since it saves the cost on procurement and preparation of setts, land preparation, planting, etc. The productivity and quality of ratoon crop in Goa are very poor since most of the ratoons are neglected or subjected to mismanagement. The productivity of ratoon can be upgraded to the level of plant crop or even better, provided sound ratoon management practices are followed by cane growers.

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Pests and Diseases of sugercane

Matching with long diversity of conditions under which sugarcane is grown in the world, there is wide spectrum of pests and diseases which have come to acquire a place of priority for control on regional or inter-regional basis due to the agro-climatic management conditions associated with the area. In addition the susceptibility of the variety to the diseases and pests aggravates the situation and creates additive problems. Below herein is given a brief account of symptoms of important pests and diseases occurring in several parts of the world. For more information and pest and disease control measures consult the local Netafim Agronomist or Plant protection expert. Early Shoot Borer (Chilo infescatellus)- Symptoms Attacks the crop during the early part of cane growth, before internode formation. It also attacks the cane stalks in the years of scanty rainfall Larvae enter the cane laterally through one or more holes in the stalks (shoot) and bores downwards as well as upwards killing the growing point. Thus it cuts of the central leaf spindle, which eventually dries forming a ‘dead heart'. The dead heart can be easily pulled out. It emits an offensive odour. Borer infestation during the germination phase kills the mother shoots resulting in the drying up of the entire clump. This leads to gaps in the field. Causes heavy yield losses as it affects the plant stand/unit area. It also leads to canes of different age, which will be poor in juice quality, with less cane weight. When borer infects cane stalks, both yield and quality are reduced. Internode Borer (Chilo Saccharifagus Indicus) - Symptoms Damages the crop soon after internode formation and its activity continues till hatvest Lodging, high dosage of nitrogen, waterlogged condition and presence of water shoots favour buildup of pest Fresh borer attack is mostly found in the top five immature internodes Caterpillars bore at the nodal region and enter the stem and tunnel up-wards in a characteristic spiral fashion. Entrance hole is usually plugged with excreta. Larvae feed and multiply in water shoots. One larvae found in a single cane damages 1-3 internodes. The length and girth of the infected internodes get reduced. Yield loss and juice quality deterioration occurs when the infestation is severe (In the picture above: Internode borer damage) Top Borer (Scirpophaga Excerptalis) Waterlogging favours moth attack Larva first tunnels into the midrib of the leaves and causes a white streak which later turns reddish brown usually in the second to fifth leaf from the top. As a result of biting across the spindle, a number of shot holes are formed in the leaf. As larva nibbles into the central core of the cane a portion of the internal tissue is eaten resulting in dead heart formation. Dead heart when formed is reddish brown, appears charred, and cannot be easily pulled out. In tillering phase of the crop, the attacked shoots die, side shoots (tillers) develop producing a bunchy top appearance. In the grand growth period, the crop growth is arrested, and the crown with dead heart dries and may be blown off leaving the stump. Severe yield loss and quality deterioration occurs due to top borer. Depending upon the incidence level yield loss may be up to 20-30%. Scale Insect (Melanaspis Glomerata) Waterlogging, high temperature and humidity favour buildup of scale insect population. Rainwater and high wind velocity facilitate dispersal of the pest. It spreads to new areas through seed material. Men and animals passing through the infested fields also lead to spread of the pest to the adjoining areas. Scales usually establish on internodes covered with leaf sheath. The leaves of infested canes show signs of tip drying and unhealthy pale green colour and with continued infestation turn yellow. Desapping leads to non-opening of leaves also, which also turn yellow and finally dry out. Nodal region is more infested than internodal region. Infested crop losses its vigour, canes shrivel, growth is stunted and the internodal length is reduced drastically. Ultimately cane dries up. Such canes when slit open appear brownish red. Thus yield and quality suffer. The yield loss could range from negligible to total crop failure. Pyrilla (Pyrilla purpusilla Walker) Pyrilla is the most destructive foliage-sucking pest of sugarcane Heavy rainfall followed by 75-80% humidity, intermittent drought periods, high temperature (26-30°c) and wind movement favour rapid buildup of pyrilla. Other factors favouring pyrilla buildup are dense and luxuriant crop, excess nitrogen application, water logging, lodging of cane and varieties with broad and succulent leaves. Adults and the nymps suck leaf sap from the under surface of the lower leaves. When the infestation is heavy, leaves turn yellowish white and wither away. Due to continuous desapping by large number of hoppers top leaves in the affected canes dry up and lateral buds germinate. The hoppers exude a sweet sticky fluid known as honeydew, which promotes quick and luxuriant growth of the fungus, capanodium species and as a result the leaves are completely covered by the sooty mould. This affects photosynthesis. The loss in cane yield due to pyrilla have been estimated to be around 28% with about 1.6% unit loss in sugar. Termites (Coptotermes Heimi Wasmann; Odontotermes Assmuthi Holmgr; O. Obesus Rambur; O. Wallonensis Wasmann; Microtermes Obesi Holmgr; Trinervitermes Biformis Wasmann) Polyphagous and found throughout the world. More serious under prolonged drought conditions and in light textured soils viz., sandy and sandy loam soils The termites attack setts, shoots, canes and also stubbles The termites gain entry through the cut ends or through buds of the setts and feed on the soft tissue. The tunnel excavated is filled with the soil. This affects germination and thus the initial crop stand and ultimately the cane yield. The germination failure could be up to 60%. In the stalks the termites feed on the inner tissues leaving the rind intact. The cavity formed is filled up with moist soil, having galleries, in which, they move about. The affected canes die.   Whitefly (Aleurolobus Barodensis Mask) Waterlogging and nitrogen starvation cause severe out break of whiteflies. Summer droughts and dry spells during monsoon season also favour buildup of this pest Varieties with broad and long leaves are more susceptible to this pest The nymphs of white flies suck the sap from the under surface of leaves which turn yellow and pinkish in severe cases and gradually dry up. Heavy infested leaves are covered by the sooty mould caused by the fungus, which adversely affects photosynthesis. The whitefly infestation retards cane growth and reduces sugar content Considerable loss on yield and sugar recovery has been observed. At 80% leaf infestation 23.4% loss in cane yield and 2.9% units loss in sucrose has been reported. (In the picture above: White fly infestation)  Red Rot (Colletotrichum Falcatum) It is the most dreaded disease of sugarcane which has caused the elimination of several important sugarcane varieties from cultivation Yellowing and drying of leaves from margin to midrib, drying of the entire top including the crown, loss of natural colour and considerable shrinkage of the stalk, appearance of reddish lesions on the rind are some of the external symptoms of red rot disease. Most characteristic and diagnostic symptom of the disease is the presence of reddish discoloured patches or lesions interspersed with white horizontal patches on the internal tissue. As the diseases progresses the internal tissues become dark in colour and dry resulting in longitudinal pith cavities. Smut (Ustilago Scitaminea) Primary spread of the disease is through infected setts and the secondary spread is through wind borne teliospore Stunting of infected stools, profuse sprouting of lateral shoots i.e., tillers, reduction in internodal length, formation of thin stalks and narrow erect leaves are certain symptoms of smut. Characteristic symptom is the production of long whip like structure from the terminal bud of the stalk, which is black in colour covered by thin silvery membrane. This silvery membrane ruptures releasing millions of reproductive spores of smut fungus, which are present in the form of powdery mass. Losses due to smut in sugarcane depend on various factors viz., primary or secondary infection, plant or ratoon crop that is affected and early or late infection and have been reported to range from 30 - 40% in plant crops and even up to 70% in ratoons. Sucrose content of infected cane is reduced to 3 - 7%. Pineapple Disease (Ceratocystis Paradoxa) Essentially a disease of seed material i.e., setts. Typical disease symptoms are detected in setts after 2 - 3 weeks of planting. Pathogen enters the sett mainly through the cut ends and destroy the central soft portion i.e., parachymatous tissues of the internode and then damages the buds. Affected tissues first develop a reddish colour, which turns to brownish black in the later stages. Cavities are formed inside the severely affected internodes. The presence of the fungus inside the sett prevents their rooting. In most cases setts decay before bud sprouts or the shoots grown to an height of 6 - 12cm. Thus causing germination failure leading to reduced initial crop stand per unit area. Occasionally, the disease occurs in standing crop too due to the entry of the pathogen through stalk damaged by borers, rat damage or any such injuries. Drought accelerates the damage. Pathogen spreads rapidly throughout the canes, foliage turns yellow, and ultimately plant withers. The diseased stalk when cut open smells like mature pineapple. The pineapple odour is due to production of ethyl acetate by the fungus. Wilt (Cephalosporium Sacchari) Disease spreads through infected setts. The fungi gain entry mainly through injuries. Biotic stresses like nematode, root borer, termite, scales, mealy bugs etc and abiotic stresses like drought, water logging etc predispose the plants for wilt infection Moisture stress coupled with high temperature and low humidity reduces plant resistance to wilt. Typical wilt symptoms appear during monsoon and post monsoon periods. Affected plant appears wilted and conspicuously stunted. The crown leaves turn yellow, loose turgor and eventually withers. Wilt-affected canes loose their normal colour and are light in weight. The most characteristic symptom during the early stage of infection is the presence of diffused reddish brown patches on the internal tissue. Later canes become light and hallow and shrink. Disease reduces germination and in severe cases total cane yield losses occur due to drying up of shoots and wilting of the stalks. Ratoon Stunting Disease Ratoon stunting disease has been considered as the most important cause for sugarcane varietal degeneration Primary spread of the disease is through infected setts. Also spreads through harvesting implements contaminated with the juice of diseased canes. Expression of disease is more under adverse conditions. Progressive yield decline takes place due to the disease. Ratoon crop suffers more damage due to RSD than the plant crop. Disease is known to reduce germination and yield Most characteristic symptom of the infected stalks is the presence of pin head like orange coloured dots of bacteria on the internal soft tissue in the nodal region. Other symptoms include stunted growth, thin stalks with short internodes, pale yellowish foliage and rapid tapering of the stem towards the top (In the picture above: Ratoon stunting disease symptom)  Grassy Shoot Disease (Phytoplasma) It is a mycoplasamal disease. Primary transmission of disease is through disease infected setts Profuse tillering with narrow chlorotic leaves giving a grass like appearance is characteristic symptom of GSD incidence Very few tillers of GSD infected plants develop into canes, which are thin and produce white shoots from the side buds. Leaf Scald (Xanthomonas Albileneans) It is a bacterial disease, widely spread in many countries. Disease is favoured by wet seasons, water stress due to drought, water logging and low temperatures. Disease symptoms appear in two phases, the chronic and acute phases. In the chronic phase, "white pencil line" extending entire length of lamina reaching the margin of young leaves and stripes diffuse later resulting in leaf etiolation. Drying from tip onwards presents a scalded appearance and hence the name. Different degrees of chlorosis from total albinism to interveinal chlorosis in young leaves during summer, germination of buds in acropetal manner with bushy appearance in standing cane, cut open stalks showing dark red vascular strands, prominent streaks at node invariably in the side shoots, are other prominent symptoms of chronic phase. In the acute phase the symptoms appear suddenly and die without any major leaf symptoms. The masking of symptoms is more common during monsoon and symptoms may appear suddenly any time during crop growth. Yellow Leaf Spoot (Cercospora Koepkei) Prolonged rain with intermittent sunshine, waterlogged conditions and higher nitrogen doses are congenial for disease development. Warm humid weather favours rapid and abundant production of conidia by the pathogen and sopread of the disease. Characteristic symptoms are presence of small, yellow coloured, irregularly shaped spots over the leaf surface. Density of spots is minimum in the lower surface, moderate in the middle and maximum towards the tip of the leaf. Spots coalesce at late stages and cause drying of leaves. Badly affected foliage looks reddish-brown when viewed from a distance. In the picture: Yellow leaf spot showing small yellow coloured spots  Eye spot (Helminthosporium sacchari) Usually a crop of 6 - 7 months is more susceptible to the disease. Fungus penetrates the host tissue either through stomota, bulliform cells or directly through the cuticle. Cloudy weather, high humidity with drizzle coupled with low night temperatures, wetting of leaves either through precipitation or dew greatly enhance disease development. Likewise water logging, high fertility status and excess nitrogen fertilization also favour the spread of the disease. Lesions first appear as small water soaked spots, darker than the surrounding tissues. The spot becomes more elongated, resembling the shape of an ‘eye' and turns straw coloured within a few days. Finally the central portion becomes reddish brown surrounded by straw coloured tissues. Then reddish brown streaks of ‘runners' develop extending from the lesions towards the leaf tip along the veins. Later the spots and streaks coalesce to form large patches and causes drying of leaves.

  What is biochar?

Biochar is a solid material obtained from the carbonization of biomass. Biochar may be added to soils with the intention to improve soil functions and to reduce emissions from biomass that would otherwise naturally degrade to greenhouse gases. Biochar also has appreciable carbon sequestration value. These properties are measurable and verifiable in a characterisation scheme, or in a carbon emission offset protocol.
Biochar is the carbon (C) rich product when biomass, such as wood, manure or leaves, is heated with little or no available oxygen. In more technical terms, biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of organic material under limited supply of oxygen (O₂), and at relatively low temperatures (<700°C). This process often mirrors the production of charcoal, which is perhaps the most ancient industrial technology developed by humankind. However, it distinguishes itself from charcoal and similar materials by the fact that biochar is produced with the intent to be applied to soil as a means to improve soil health, to filter and retain nutrients from percolating soil water, and to provide carbon storage.
Carbonization: The process of converting feedstock into biochar through reductive thermal processing. The process involves a combination of time, heat, and pressure exposure factors that can vary between processors, equipment, and feedstocks.
See Chapter 1: Biochar for Environmental Management – an Introduction, Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

2. What can biochar do?

Sustainable biochar is a powerfully simple tool that can 1) fight global warming; 2) produce a soil enhancer that holds carbon and makes soil more fertile; 3) reduce agricultural waste; and 4) produce clean, renewable energy. In some biochar systems all four objectives can be met, while in others a combination of two or more objectives will be obtained.
See Chapter 1: Biochar for Environmental Management – an Introduction, Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

3. How is biochar produced?

Carbonization is the process of converting a feedstock into biochar through reductive thermal processing. The process involves a combination of time, heat and pressure exposure factors that can vary between processors, equipment, and feedstocks. There are two main processes: pyrolysis or gasification. Energy products in the form of gas or oil are produced along with the biochar. These energy products may be recoverable for another use, or may simply be burned and released as heat. In addition, biochar can be made from a wide variety of biomass feedstocks. As a result, different biochar systems emerge on different scales. These systems may use production technologies that do or do not produce recoverable energy as well as biochar, and range from small household units to large bioenergy power plants.
See Chapter 8: Biochar Production Technology and Chapter 9: Biochar Systems, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

4. How do we know that biochar helps increase crop yields?

There is a large body of peer-reviewed literature quantifying and describing the crop yield benefits of biochar-amended soil. Field trials using biochar have been conducted in the tropics over the past several years. Most show positive results on yields when biochar was applied to field soils and nutrients were managed appropriately.
There is also evidence from thousands of years of traditional use of charcoal in soils. The most well-know example is the fertile Terra Preta soils in Brazil, but Japan also has a long tradition of using charcoal in soil, a tradition that is being revived and has been exported over the past 20 years to countries such as Costa Rica. The Brazilian and Japanese traditions together provide long-term evidence of positive biochar impact on soils. To read more about field trials and biochar, hile the larger questions concerning overall biochar benefits to soils and climate have been answered in the affirmative, significant questions remain, including the need for a better understanding of some of the details of biochar production and characterization. Work is ongoing to develop methods for matching different types of biochar to soils for the best results. 

5. How can biochar help farmers?

Biochar provides a unique opportunity to improve soil fertility for the long term using locally available materials. Used alone, or in combinations, compost, manure and/or agrochemicals are added at certain rates every year to soils, in order to realize benefits. Application rates of these can be reduced when nutrients are combined with biochar. Biochar remains in the soil, and single applications can provide benefits over many years. Farmers can also receive an energy yield when converting organic residues into biochar by capturing energy given off in the biochar production process. In both industrialized and developing countries, soil loss and degradation is occurring at unprecedented rates, with profound consequences for soil ecosystem properties. In many regions, loss in soil productivity occurs despite intensive use of agrochemicals, concurrent with adverse environmental impacts on soil and water resources. Biochar can play a major role in expanding options for sustainable soil management by improving upon existing best management practices, not only to improve soil productivity but also to decrease nutrient loss through leaching by percolating water.
See Chapter 1: Biochar for Environmental Management – an Introduction, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

6. How does biochar affect soil biology?

Decades of research in Japan and recent studies in the U.S. have shown that biochar stimulates the activity of a variety of agriculturally important soil microorganisms, and can greatly affect the microbiological properties of soils. The pores in biochar provide a suitable habitat for many microorganisms by protecting them from predation and drying while providing many of their diverse carbon (C), energy and mineral nutrient needs. With the interest in using biochar for promoting soil fertility, many scientific studies are being conducted to better understand how this affects the physical and chemical properties of soil and its suitability as a microbial habitat. Since soil organisms provide a myriad of ecosystem services, understanding how adding biochar to soil may affect soil ecology is critical for assuring that soil quality and the integrity of the soil subsystem are maintained.
See Chapter 6: Characteristics of Biochar: Biological Properties, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

7. How does biochar affect soil properties like pH and CEC?

Biochar reduces soil acidity which decreases liming needs, but in most cases does not actually add nutrients in any appreciable amount. Biochar made from manure and bones is the exception; it retains a significant amount of nutrients from its source. Because biochar attracts and holds soil nutrients, it potentially reduces fertilizer requirements. As a result, fertilization costs are minimized and fertilizer (organic or chemical) is retained in the soil for longer. In most agricultural situations worldwide, soil pH (a measure of acidity) is low (a pH below 7 means more acidic soil) and needs to be increased. Biochar retains nutrients in soil directly through the negative charge that develops on its surfaces, and this negative charge can buffer acidity in the soil, as does organic matter in general.
CEC stands for Cation Exchange Capacity, and is one of many factors involved in soil fertility. “Cations” are positively charged ions, in this case we refer specifically to plant nutrients such as calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+) and others. These simple forms are those in which plants take the nutrients up through their roots. Organic matter and some clays in soil hold on to these positively charged nutrients because they have negatively charged sites on their surfaces, and opposite charges attract. The soil can then “exchange” these nutrients with plant roots. If a soil has a low cation exchange capacity, it is not able to retain such nutrients well, and the nutrients are often washed out with water.
See Chapter 14: Biochar effects on soil nutrient transformations; Chapter 15: Biochar effects on nutrient leaching; and Chapter 16: Biochar and Sorption of Organic Compounds, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

8. Can you add biochar to alkaline soils?

Most biochar trials have been done on acidic soils, where biochars with a high pH (e.g. 6 – 10) were used. One study that compared the effect of adding biochar to an acidic and an alkaline soil found greater benefits on crop growth in the acidic soil, while benefits on the alkaline soil were minor. In another study, adding biochar to soil caused increases in pH which had a detrimental effect on yields, because of micronutrient deficiencies which occur at high pH (>6). Care must be taken when adding any material with a liming capacity to alkaline soils; however, it is possible to produce biochar that has little or no liming capacity that is suitable for alkaline soils.
See Chapter 5 Biochar: Nutrient Properties and Their Enhancement, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

9. How long does biochar last in the soil?

The stability of biochar is of fundamental importance in determining the environmental benefits of biochar. There are two reasons why stability is important: first, stability determines how long carbon (C) applied to soil as biochar will remain sequestered in soil and contribute to the mitigation of climate change; and secondly, stability will determine how long biochar can provide benefits to soil and water quality. Biochar is not a single material, and its characteristics vary depending upon what it is made from and how it is made. Most biochars have a small labile (easily decomposed) fraction in addition to a much larger stable fraction. Scientists have shown that the mean residence time of this stable fraction is estimated to range from several hundred to a few thousand years.

10. How much CO₂ can biochar potentially remove from the atmosphere?

The IBI promotes the use of waste biomass for the production of biochar. Large amounts of agricultural residues, municipal green waste and forestry biomass are currently burned or left to decompose and release CO₂ and methane back into the atmosphere.

A more optimistic scenario shows that by the year 2050, approximately 2.2 Gt of carbon could be stored or offset on an annual basis. The assumptions used that produced the high end figure are as follows:

• Assumes 80% of all crop and forestry residues (assuming current agricultural and forestry production levels) are available to be converted to biochar and energy.
• Assumes energy produced in pyrolysis was used to replace energy that would have come from coal.
• Assumes significant decreases in N₂O emissions resulting from biochar use.
• Assumes an increase in Net Primary Production accrues from use of biochar in soils.

11. How does biochar work to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases other than CO₂?

Recent studies have indicated that incorporating biochar into soil reduces nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and increases methane (CH₄) uptake from soil. Methane is over 20 times more effective in trapping heat in the atmosphere than CO₂, while nitrous oxide has a global warming potential that is 310 times greater than CO₂. Although the mechanisms for these reductions are not fully understood, it is likely that a combination of biotic and abiotic factors are involved, and these factors will vary according to soil type, land use, climate and the characteristics of the biochar. An improved understanding of the role of biochar in reducing non-CO₂ greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions will promote its incorporation into climate change mitigation strategies, and ultimately, its commercial availability and application.
See Chapter 13: Biochar and emissions of non-CO₂ greenhouse gases from soil, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

12. Is biochar production sustainable?

Of all the key factors that will support the fastest commercialization of the biochar industry, feedstock supply and sustainable yield issues are by far the most important, from both and from the financial and commercial points of view. This will require the sources of biomass selected for biochar production to be appropriate and be able to withstand a comprehensive life cycle analysis. Biochar can and should be made from waste materials. These include crop residues (both field residues and processing residues such as nut shells, fruit pits, etc), as well as yard, food and forestry wastes, and animal manures. Large amounts of agricultural, municipal and forestry biomass are currently burned or left to decompose and release CO₂ and methane back into the atmosphere. Making biochar from these materials will entail no competition for land with any other land use option.
Biochar can be a tool for improving soils and sequestering carbon in soil. However, this technology as any other The goal of biochar technology as IBI envisions it is to improve soil fertility and sequester carbon, taking into consideration the full life cycle analysis of the technology. Properly implemented, biochar production and use should serve the interests of local people and protect biodiversity.
See Chapter 20: Socio-economic Assessment and Implementation of Small Scale Biochar Projects; and Chapter 21: Taking Biochar to Market: Some Essential Concepts for Commercial Success, , in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

13. Does IBI advocate adding carbon derived from coal, old tires or municipal solid waste to soils?

No. Coal is not a renewable resource. Biochar refers specifically to materials made from present-day biomass, not fossil carbon. Tires and other potentially toxic waste materials are not appropriate as sources of biochar for soil improvement.

14. Could biochar impact climate through changes in soil albedo?

After centuries of agriculture, soils globally have become depleted of carbon, compared to pre-agricultural conditions. Agricultural development goals include restoring carbon to carbon-depleted soils. Unavoidably, adding carbon to soils darkens them, changing their albedo (a measure of sunlight reflectance). Fortunately, darker, carbon-rich soils are more fertile and will be more easily re-vegetated. Vegetation has a lighter albedo, so the albedo problem is very temporary in nature and is not a significant issue.

15. Could black dust from biochar have an impact on climate?

Small particles of black carbon are produced from the incomplete combustion of fossil and biomass fuels. When deposited on snow and ice, they are able to absorb heat and energy. The smallest black carbon particles associated with biochar production and application are much larger, in the millimeter range, than the particles associated with global warming, in the nanometer range. Thus application of biochar would result in little opportunity for long-range transport and deposition into the sensitive Arctic and mountain regions.
Dust is a certainly a concern with biochar application, but best practices require that biochar applications be done during periods of low wind to prevent the blowing of fines. Agricultural techniques already exist to apply powdered fertilizers and other amendments. Several techniques are available to help keep wind losses to a minimum: biochar can be pelleted, prilled, mixed into a slurry with water or other liquids, mixed with manure and/or compost, or banded in rows. The optimization of biochar application to soil is important, and the farm technology and methods are available to do the job.

16. What are the costs and benefits of producing and using biochar?

The benefits that potentially flow from biochar production and use include waste reduction, energy co-production, improved soil fertility and structure, and climate change mitigation. Not all of these benefits are accounted for under current economic systems, but under the carbon constrained economies of the future, the climate mitigation benefit is likely to be accounted for as an economic benefit. Biochar benefits are partly offset by the costs of production, mainly hauling and processing feedstocks. Profitability of biochar systems will be especially sensitive to prices for energy and for greenhouse gas reductions and offsets.
See Chapter 19: Economics of Biochar Production, Utilisation and Emissions, in Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, edited by Johannes Lehmann and Stephen Joseph, Earthscan 2009.

17. Can biochar be patented?

While some biochar producers may be able to patent a specific biochar production process or method, there exist a number of that can make biochar at the home or village level, and more are being developed.

18. Does the rise or fall of the biochar industry depend on comprehensive international agreements on climate change?

Biochar offers direct, present day benefits to farmers of all sizes in the form of greater crop productivity, and efforts are underway to promote widespread testing of biochar in many different types of soils. Financial instruments that would lead to direct benefits for farmers in the form of carbon trading, for example, would certainly provide more incentives for biochar technology adoption. This has been and is being

19. What kind of biochar should you add to your soil, how much should you add, and where can you buy biochar?

It is important to note that not all biochar is the same. Biochar is made by pyrolysing biomass—pyrolysis bakes the biomass in the absence of oxygen, driving off volatile gases and leaving behind charcoal. The key chemical and physical properties of biochar are greatly affected by the type of feedstock being heated and the conditions of the pyrolysis process. For example, biochar made from manure will have a higher nutrient content than biochar made from wood cuttings. However, the biochar from the wood cuttings may have a greater degree of persistence over time. The two different biochars will look similar but will behave quite differently. IBI has recently produced
Some biochar materials, for example those made from manures and bones, are mainly composed of ashes (so-called “high mineral ash biochars”), and thus can supply considerable amounts of nutrients to crops. Keep in mind that this fertilizer effect will likely be immediate and short-lived, just as is the case with synthetic fertilizers. Conversely, the carbon content of high mineral ash biochars is low (e.g. < 10%), and thus longer-term nutrient retention functions will be less for a given amount of material.
Given the variability in biochar materials and soils, users of biochar should consider testing several rates of biochar application on a small scale before setting out to apply it on large areas. Experiments have found that rates between 5 – 50 t/ha (0.5 – 5 kg/m2) have often been used successfully.
The biochar market is still in its infancy, but there are sellers of the product.

20. Can I use biochar immediately after producing it?

Biochar straight out of the pyrolysis unit might take some time to reach its full potential in soil, because it needs it's surfaces to "open up", or "weather". This happens naturally in soil, but the process can be sped up by mixing biochar with compost, for example. Nutrient retention with biochar is thought to improve with time, along with crop benefits. Mixing biochar with compost is a great idea, since apart from the ash (and there might only be small amounts of it in biochar), biochar is not a fertilizer in itself so the compost can provide nutrients which the biochar can help retain.

21. Is it true that most of the biochar added to soils is exported to rivers and oceans?

While the paper makes an important contribution to the global knowledge base on DOC fluxes in the environment, IBI believes there are a number of clarifications needed to reduce the propagation of erroneous conclusions about biochar behavior in soil.
We concur with the finding that the export of BC to terrestrial ecosystems via rivers is significant. This should not be interpreted, however, as being greater than the export of uncharred material. In fact, the export of BC is only 10% of the total export of organic carbon, which is on the same order of magnitude or even smaller than the proportions that the authors cite for BC contents in soils of 5 - 40%. Therefore, BC in soil is not preferentially exported from watersheds.
Based on citations the authors conclude that production rates of BC exceed decomposition rates and thus “a relatively labile BC pool must exist, allowing for considerable losses from soils.” However, the studies cited acknowledge high uncertainty in the rates of BC production, and, in the case of BC degradation, do not support inferences about BC degradation via microbial metabolization—rather just total losses from soil, be it via erosion, leaching or mineralization. Based on uncertainty in both production and decomposition of BC, we believe that further research is warranted to understand BC fluxes in the environment.
Finally, the article concludes by implying that use of biochar may reduce DOC bioavailability with cascading effects on microbial and aquatic food webs. This, however, would only be correct if all biochar were made from biomass where the baseline scenario is accumulation in soil. In fact, most biochar proponents—including IBI—advocate for use of biomass feedstocks that are currently burnt, land filled or disposed of in ways other than returning them to soils. Furthermore, even aggressive scenarios of biochar addition would still only be a fraction of total annual biomass residues that are already returned to soils and the impact on DOC bioavailability would thus be small.