Sorghum : Sorghum bicolor L. Moench

Introduction
Sorghum is a contender to maize in the provender industry, which dependant up on the grain price in the world market. The International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics(ICRISAT) in India has developed germplasm which are highly suitable for both food and feed purposes. Poor demand arising from more popularity of other major cereals and high bird damage are the main reasons for less popularity of the crop when both quality and yield are superior in newly improved varieties.

Nutritive value %

Carbohydrate	74.93
Protein	7.57
Fat	3.92
Minerals	2.89
Moisture	9.38
Fibre	1.31
Calary vlaue/100g	365.3

Recommended Varieties

Variety	IS 2941
Year of release	1971

Field establishment
Climate and Soil requirements
Deep, loamy, fertile soils, rich in organic matter, are preferred for satisfactory growth. Well-drained soils with adequate moisture supply are required for uninterrupted growth of this crop.By establishing the crops with the on-set of the rainy season, the crops can be harvested before depletion of soil moisture. They can be planted in maha similarly, as with other major crops that need 3-3 months to mature and a longer rainy season for uninterrupted growth.
Land preparation
Deep ploughing up to 45 cm is favourable for sorghum that have deep growth. Ridges can be made at 60cm apart for sorghum planting. Seeds are planted on ridges to avoid water logging in heavy rainy periods. Sufficient drains are provided to drain off excess water during rainy periods.
Spacing
For sorghum seeds are planted at 60cm x 30cm 2 plants per hill.
Planting material
Seed requirement for planting one hectare of sorghum is 8-10kg
Time of planting
In Maha these crops can be raised as rainfed as well with supplementary irrigation when there are drought periods. Maha crop can be established with Maha rains that occur in latter part of September or first week of October for successful growth. Yala crops should be established with Yala rains that fall in later part of April. By timely cultivation pest problems can be reduced.

Crop management
Weed control
Weeds could be controlled by manual methods such as weeding and application pre- and post emergent weed killers. Crops need to be maintained weed free at least until flowering stage.
Fertilizer application (kg/ha)

Crop	Urea	Conc. Super Phosphate	Muriate of Potash
Sorghum	150	100	50

Irrigation
During dry periods, irrigations are required every 4-7 days depending on the severity of the drought and type of soil.
Diseases and Insect pest control
Root and stalk rots and foliar diseases such as leaf blight and sheath blight are common in humid days & Sorghum is also highly susceptible to rots

Harvesting & post-harvest technology
Harvesting
Crops are harvested, shelled and cleaned manually when grain moisture is low and after physiological maturity is reached. Seed moisture is lowered by sun drying to a safer level before shelling the seeds.
Post harvest technologies & food technologies
As post harvest facilities are yet to develop, except seed that need special attention and storage conditions, commercial grain are disposed as quickly as possible to avoid wastage by pest and diseases. As a result a fair priced to most products. About 75% of maize and sorghum are used in feed production. 

Cinnamon

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume

Family Lauraceae

History

Cinnamon is the dried bark of the perennial tree of C.zeylanicum of the Lauraceae family. True cinnamon is native to Sri Lanka. Cinnamon is originally grown wild in central hill country of Sri Lanka. The history of cinnamon dates back to about 2800 B.C where it can be found referenced as ”kwai” in Chinese writings. Cinnamon is even mentioned in the Bible when Moses used it as an ingredient for his anointing oil in ancient Rome. It was burned in Roman funerals perhaps partly as a way forward to off the odor of dead bodies. Emperor Nero is said to have burned a years’ worth of the dry supply of cinnamon at the funeral of his wife Poppaea Sabina. Ancient Egyptians used it in embalming mummies because of pleasant odors and its preservative qualities.

Cinnamon was a precious spice in the west during 14th -15th centuries and its’ primary use was to preserve meat and to retard the growth of bacteria.   The quest for cinnamon was a major factor which led to exploration of the world in 15th century. By that time the real cinnamon was produced in only one place, namely in Ceylon or Sri Lanka. Anyone who had the control of the supply flow would have made profits immensely. Portuguese traders made their way to Ceylon in the 15th century, enslaved the natives and had the control of the trade from Arabs. Soon the Dutch displaced the Portuguese and gained the control of the cinnamon monopoly. It was the Dutch who took a massive effort to boost the production by domestication of crop and expanding extent in the areas they had the control. Because of that effort cinnamon cultivations were moved to Western and Southern coastal belts of the island. Since 1815 the British took the control of the island and cinnamon trade too was moved to their hands. By this time the relative importance of spices in the world market had been declining due to the emerging plantation crop sector of tea and rubber, which restricted the further expansion of cinnamon.
The best historical evidence about the cinnamon trade in Sri Lanka is found in Up country-Dutch agreement (Hanguranketha agreement) signed in 14th February 1766 between the Sri Lankan king Sri Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe and the Dutch government.
By this agreement King had permitted the Dutch to cut and peel cinnamon in certain forest areas of Sri Lanka and Dutch agreed to protect the Kingdom from foreign invasion.

Products and Uses

Cinnamon bark is largely available in the form of quills and making quills is unique to Sri Lanka. Quills are made by rolling the pealed bark and join several of them together to get a pipe like structure in the required length. Other than that pieces of bark are available as chips, quillings or featherings. Cinnamon is unique plant which has essential oil in leaves, bark and roots but chemical composition of them are completely different from each other. Essential oils are produced from both bark and leaves; major chemical in bark oil is Cinnamaldehyde and in leaf oil Euginol. Cinnamon is also available in pure ground form or as n ingredient in curry mixtures and pelleted form too.

Cinnamon is mostly used in cooking and baking. Cinnamon is a versatile spice which can be added to any food item such as salads, confectionaries, beverages, soups, stews and sauces. Cinnamon drink made by immersing pieces of bark in hot water is popular among Latin American countries. Cinnamon flavored tea is becoming popular. It is also used as a common ingredient in Chinese ad Aurvedic medicine. Cinnamon leaf and bark oils are used to flavor food products, in perfumery industry and in pharmaceutical industry.

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka, Cinnamon seems to have originated in the central hills where seven wild species of cinnamon occur in Kandy, Matale, Belihull oya, Haputale, Horton planes and the Sinharaja forest range. Presently cultivation concentrated along the coastal belt from Negambo to Matara, it has also made inroads to Kalutara and Ratnapura.

Varieties

There are eight cinnamon species in Sri Lanka. Among them only Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume is grown commercially. In tradition, there were several types of cinnamon categorized based on taste of the bark. “Pani-Miris Kurundu” was the best with sweet-pungent taste and “Miris Kurundu”, “Sevel Kurundu” and “Thiththa Kurundu” are the others. Currently ten cinnamon accessions have been identified based on yield and quality performances and best two lines, named as “Sri Vijaya” and “Sri Gamunu”, were released. Other selections are under evaluation in different agro climatic zones.

Soils and Climatic needs

Soils
Cinnamon can be grown in various types of soils varying from silver sands in Negambo to loamy and lateritic gravelly soils in Southern costal belt and interior. The bark quality is influenced by soil and climatic factors and the best quality cinnamon is produced in white sandy soil in Negombo area. However, the best grade cinnamon called “Alba” is mainly produced in Red Yellow Podzolic soils in South-western region of Sri Lanka. Cinnamon needs a deep soil but cinnamon roots can penetrate even through the cracks of the parent material to deeper layers.

Climate
Cinnamon is commercially grown in coastal belts in Sri Lanka and spread to interior part of the country where elevation is increased up to about 250 above MSL. Naturally cinnamon has been found in central hilly area of Sri Lanka the elevation increased up to about 500m amsl. Until to date it can be found in  Sinharaja  and Knuckles forest reserve. Wet zone is ideal for the successful growth of cinnamon but it can be grown commercially in Intermediate zones of mid and low country, where annual rainfall is more than 1750mm.  However it is not suitable for areas with prolong dry periods.
Cinnamon is sun loving plant and high sun shine is needed.
The most suitable temperature is between 250C- 320C .
Rainfall should be in the region of 1,750-3,500 mm per annum.

Crop establishment

Planting materials
Cinnamon is usually propagated by seeds in large scale. Vegetative propagation through stem cuttings is feasible. Well ripened seeds are selected, thoroughly washed to remove pericarp and plant in 12.5 x20.0cm poly bags filled with equal parts of top soil, cow dung, sand and coir dust.
Five to eight seeds are planted in a bag but thinning out is done to keep 4-5 vigorous plants after about two months.

Field planting
Spacing - 120cm x 90cm (9000 plants/ha)
Planting is done with the on set of monsoon rains.  Healthy, disease free, four month old seedlings are planted in pits of 30cm x 30cm x 30cm. Planting pit is filled with top soil and cow dung or compost and one bag with 4-5 seedlings is planted in a pit.

Crop management

Fertilizer application
When harvesting the whole cinnamon plant is harvested hence the bush need a high fertilizer dose to rejuvenate a new shoot. Application of chemical fertilizer increases the yield significantly and application of organic fertilizer (cinnamon leaves, compost, poultry manure) too is highly beneficial for successful growth and yield.

Fertilizer recommendation
Recommended fertilizer mixture - 900 kg / ha /yr

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrients in the mixture
Urea (46% N)	2	23% N
Rock phosphate (28% p2O5)	1	7% P2O5
Muriate of potash (60% k2O)	1	15% K20

Age of plantation	Maha Season (mixture kg/ha)	Yala Season (mixture kg/ha)
1st Year (six months after planting)	150	150
2nd Year (kg)	300	300
3rd Year and onwards (kg)	450	450

Fertilizer is applied twice a year with the beginning of rains of Yala and Maha. Dolomite is applied, at the rate of 500 to 1000kg / ha /year, in areas where soil pH is below 4.5.

Weeding - Weeding is also an essential operation in cinnamon. Clean weeding is recommended for young plantations and slash weeding is recommended at 2-3 times a year for mature crop.
Soil conservation –In areas where the land is sloppy or undulated, soil conservation reduce the erosion.  Contour trenches at appropriate intervals are recommended.
Plant training and pruning – Training and pruning of plants should be done once in every six months. Excess lateral branches are removed to have a straight and smooth stem and after harvesting weak shoots are removed to enhance the growth of main stems.

Crop Protection

Diseases

Rough Bark Disease: Phomopsis sps.

Rough bark disease is the most common disease of cinnamon which affects on young bark of immature shoots as brown spots and spread gradually throughout the bark. Leaves of the infested plants show clorosis and under severe conditions infected immature plants will die. Diseased bark can not be peeled. Disease can be controlled by destroying diseased plant and through adoption of correct cultural practices. Harvesting should be done at correct intervals and excess lateral branches to be removed. As a chemical treatment 1% Bordeaux mixture or copper based fungicide can be sprayed.

White Root Disease
Causal agent is a fungus known as Fomes noxis. Commonly found in cinnamon planted in lands which previously had rubber cultivations. Yellowing and subsequent shedding of leaves and sudden death of plants are visible symptoms. White colour fungal mycelia growths can be observed on roots of infected plants.
To control the spread of disease dead plants should be uprooted and burned. Root bases should be cleaned. Sulphur powder should be applied to the bases of infected plants and planting holes when new plants are establishing in such lands.
Other minor diseases are leaf blight, Black powdery mildew algae growth on leaves.

Pests
Pink Stem Borer: Ichneumoniptera cf.xanthosoma

Adult moth lays eggs in the bases of the cinnamon plant and caterpillar (larvae) eats in to the plant stem near the soil surface. This pest damage is most common in old plantations with poor crop management. As a result, new shoots may die and some mature shoots collapses from the base. New shoot formation also retarded. At the end gradually bush will die. The damage can successfully be controlled by covering the plant base by earthling up and through proper soil conservation. If the damage is serious, chemicals such as carbofuran and chlorophyrophos can be used.  

Other minor pest problems are cinnamon shoot borer, plant ticks and mites, leaf minor and cinnamon butterfly attacks.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

First harvest of cinnamon can be taken after three years of planting and two harvests can be taken per year. Harvesting is done when the bark color of the stem turn in to brown and stick diameter is about 3-5cm diameter. Branches and leaves are removed from harvested sticks before peeling and harvested stems should be peeled on the same day. During peeling outer skin is scraped and rubs the bark with a brass rod to be loosened bark from the hard wood. Then peel the bark, part by part, with a special knife and peeled bark is allowed to dry under sun for few hours and when rolling of the bark starts, pieces of bark are connected together and to make a pipe like structure (called as a quill) and the standard length of the tube is 42 inches. The hollow of the tube is filled with small pieces of stem and the tubes are left for in-door drying for about 4-7 days.

Standard quality specifications
Quality requirements in cinnamon quills

Character
Smell	Inherited smell of cinnamon
Colour	Light brown to brown
Moisture content	14% for quills and 12% for other products
Volatile oil	1% for quills and 0.7% for other products
No. of dead insects (no./kg)	4
Mammalian fecal matter (mg/kg)	2
Other fecal matter (mg/kg)	4
Pieces with fungus attacked (% weight)	1
Pieces with insects damages ( %  weight)	1
Other extraneous matter (% weight)	05

Areca Nut

Areca catechu L
Family: Palmae

 

History

Chewing the mixture of areca nut and betel leaf is a tradition or custom which dates back thousand of years in many Asian and Oceanic countries. It is not known when the areca nut and betel leaf was combined together in to one psychoactive drug. Archeological evidence from Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines suggests that they have been used for four thousand years or more. In the Indian sub continent chewing of betel and areca nut dates back to pre Vedic period to Harappan Empire. Chinese work “San-fu-huang” supposed to have been written during 140-8 B.C. referred areca nut under the name of “pinlang”, a Malaysian word. Spanish mariner Alvaro de Mandena had reported how Solomon Islanders were chewing the areca nut with leaves of betel and caustic lime that stained their mouths red. 
Opinion of the origin of the areca nut is uncertain and has diverging views. Different researches have found wild species of the genus in Malaysia, The Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and in the Sumatra Islands of Indonesia. .
 

Products and Uses

The fruit of the Areca palm, commonly called as areca nut, is mainly used for chewing with betel leaf in almost all South Asian Countries and in Many South East Asian and Oceanic countries. It is a mild stimulant cause a mild hot sensation to the body. Nut is used both in fresh and dried forms. In Pakistan and India Fresh nut are cut and flavored to produce different products. In China and India Areca nut is used in the preparation of Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicines. In India powdered areca nut is used as a constituent in some tooth pastes. In some parts of India powdered areca nuts, decoctions or extracted alkaloids from areca are used in the veterinary medicine to remove tapeworms and other intestinal parasites of animals.
Areca leaves are used to produce many house hold items, for decorative purposes and the leaf sheath to make fast decomposing plates, packing materials etc. Traditionally, areca leaf sheaths have been used to pack cooked rice and to preserve treacle of “Fish Tail Palm”.  Matured stems are used as a building material as well as for decoration of religious events by Hindus. Young plants are used as an ornamental plant.    
 

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka areca nut is largely grown in the wet zone and wetter part of the Intermediate zone. However a small acreage of areca palms can be seen in the dry zone too especially near large water lakes and along waterways. Total extent of Areca nut in Sri Lanka is estimated to be about 11968Ha. Kalutara, Kandy, Kegalle, Ratnapura, Badulla and Matale districts are the major growing districts. Almost all areca nut palms are grown in home gardens or as mixed cultivations and little commercial cultivation can be found.
 

Varieties

Areca nuts are grown in throughout wet and intermediate zones for centuries hence there is a wide genetic variability in the Island. A large number of local selections are available in different growing regions but there are number of introduced lines as well. Germplasm, of 1206 lines, is available at the Central Research Station of the Department of Export Agriculture at Matale and several lines which give yield over 1000 nuts/tree/yr have been selected and released to the cultivators.
 

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
Areca nuts are grown well in a diverse soil types and they perform well in fertile clay loam soils or in gravelly laterite soils of red yellow podzolic type. Plant tolerates water logging to a certain extent and preferred more moist conditions. Sticky clay soils, sandy alluvial soils or calcareous soils are not suitable for the growth of areca plant.

Climate
The cultivation of areca nut is mainly confined to tropical climates. The crop thrives well in humid areas protected against direct hot sun and heavy wind. Exposure of young plants to direct sun causes sun scorching.
Altitude - Grow well up to 500M AMSL.
Temperature – Grow well within 24º – 36ºC and adversely affected by temperatures below 10ºC and above 40ºC.
Rain fall - Can grow within 1750mm-4500mm average annual rain fall ranges. Wet climate with well spread rain fall are ideal for the growth. Areca nut plants are highly susceptible to prolong droughts and in such areas areca nut should be planted near permanent or semi permanent water bodies.

Crop establishment

Planting has to be done with the on-set of monsoon rains. After the preparation of the field, young plants are established in pits of 60cmx60cm filled with the mixture of top soil and cow dung or compost. To facilitate remove excess water drainage channels must be built. When planting in slopes, contour planting is recommended. Application of organic manure is essential for better growth.
Spacing – 3.0m x 3.0m (1100 plants /ha)
Shading – Seedlings should be protected against the exposure do the direct sun light. Temporary shading can be provided by covering the plants with areca leaves, coconut leaves or polythene. Permanent shade can be provided by intercropping with banana, papaw or cassava etc. 
 

Crop management

Fertilizer application:
In Sri Lanka farmers do not fertilize areca nut. But in India, where commercial areca nut plantations exists application of fertilizer is recommended to get a higher yield.
Fertilizer recommendation:
Chemical fertilizer recommendation /plant/ year
100g of N (220g urea)
40g of P2O5 (200g rock phosphate)
140g of K2O (225g muriate of potash)
Should be applied in two split doses
Organic fertilizer
12 kg each of green leaf and compost/plant/year
Fertilizers are applied in basins around the palm dug to a depth of 15-20cm and   0.5-1m radius leaving 20cm from the base of the palm. After application the soil is rolled up and covered with organic matter and soil. However, under Sri Lankan conditions, application of organic residues, green manure or compost at the base of the plant at the rate of 20 kg per palm in two split applications is recommended at the base of the plant.

Weed Control
Research in India has shown that cultivations free of weeds gives better yield

Mulching
Mulching is a regular operation practiced in areca nut gardens in India. It keeps the plant base moist, reduces erosion and keeps the weeds under check. Chopped areca leaves and husks, grass or dry leaves are used for mulching.

Crop Protection
No economically important pest and disease problems are reported.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices
Areca plant takes 6-7 years for flowering but peak yield comes after 10-12 years old. Bunches of nuts are harvested at different stages of maturity based on the expected use. Usually in Sri Lanka matured nuts are harvested and used in a fresh form or in a dry form. If fermented, fresh nuts can be kept for about a year with out deterioration the fresh quality.
Average yield – 3-4 bunches/tree/year

Standard quality specifications

Medicinal and Chemical Properties
Chemical constituents in areca nut are tannin, gallic acid and a fixed oil gum, a little terpineol, lignin, various saline substances and three main alkaloids namely Arecoline, Arecain and Guacine which have vasoconstriction properties.

Citronella

Cymbopogon nardus/C. winterianus
Family Graminae

History

Citronella plant is a perennial 1-2m tall bush with green to yellowish green leaves. The oldest known records of using citronella oil and leaves as perfumes in religious ceremonies were found in India about 2000 years before. First evidence of using citronella oil in Sri Lanka has been reported by Dr. Nicolas Grim in 17th century. By 18th Century Sri Lanka was a reputed exporter of citronella oil and the samples of Sri Lankan Citronella oil had reported to be displayed in World trade auctions in London and Lisbon. However with the entering of Indonesia and a few other countries in to market the demand for Sri Lankan citronella has been declined.

Products and Uses

The oil extracted from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant is the commercial product of importance. Citronella oil is used as a fragrant in cosmetic industry, soap and detergent manufacturing, polish, paint and in insecticide industry. It is a common mosquito repellent and also used in indigenous medicine as well as in flavoring food and alcoholic drinks in certain countries.

Major Growing Areas

Total extent of citronella is 1065ha. and cultivations have largely been confined to Hambantota and Rathnapura districts.

Varieties

Cymbopogon nadus (“Heen pangiri”) and Cymbopogon winterianus (“Maha pangiri”)) are the two important species grown in Sri Lanka.
Cymbopogon nadus (“Heen Pangiri”)

The “heen pangiri” plant has narrow, long shiny leaves. Leaf sheaths are reddish purple in colour and dried leaves curled down at the base of the bush. Plants are erect and height of the bush is about one meter. Roots penetrate into deep soil. Plant is native to Sri Lanka.

Cymbopogon winterianus (“Maha pangiri”)

Plant has wide, flat long leaves. Bush is large and grows up to 1.5-2m in height. Roots do not penetrate in to deep soil and plant depends on the surface nutrition. Oil has pleasant odor.
 

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
Cymbopogon nadus can be grown in wide range of soils and even grown in sandy soils. But fertile acidic loam soils are preferable for Cymbopogon winterianus.

Climate:
Citronella groves well in tropical and sub tropical conditions from sea level up to an elevation of about 600m. A hot and humid condition with ample sun light is necessary for growing. An average rainfall of 1500 – 1800mm per annum is adequate for citronella as it bears dry and harsh conditions well.
 

Crop establishment

Planting material
Citronella is propagated by using suckers or rooted stem cuttings.

Field Planting: Field planting could be commenced in the months of April to August or October to January with the onset of monsoon rains. 90cm Χ 90cm and 60cm Χ 60cm is the recommended planting spacing for “Maha pangiri” and “Heen pangiri” respectively. Planting 2-3 suckers in a single planting point instead of 1 plant is a quick method of field establishment.

Crop management
Fertilizer application:
Recommended mixture - 750 kg / ha

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrient in the mixture
Urea (46%N)	1.5	17%N
Rock phosphate ( 28 % P2O5)	1.5	11% P2O5
Muriate of potash (60% K2O)	1	14% K2O

Age of plantation	Maha Season (mixture Kg/ha.)	Yala Season (mixture Kg./Ha.)
1st Year (kg)	190	190
2nd Year (kg)	375	375

Weeding: Weeds should be kept under arrest and 2-3 times weeding per year is recommended.

Soil Conservation: If citronella is planted in steep slopes suitable soil conservation method should be practiced.
 

Crop Protection

No distinctive pests or diseases of economically important have been found in Sri Lanka.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting
Harvesting can be commenced 6-8 months after field planting and repeated in every three months intervals. Aerial part of the plant is harvested 12-20cm above the ground level and allowed to wither in the field for 1-2 days prior to processing. Up to 20,000kg/ha of fresh leaves can be harvested and the yield may vary with the agronomic practices and the age of the plantation.
The oil yield can be 60 – 80 kg per hectare and 100kg per hectare for “Heen pangiri” and “Maha pangiri” respectively.

Processing:
Water or steam distillation is the main methods of extracting citronella oil commercially.

Standard quality specifications

Grade	Total Gereniol Content
Grade 1	60%
Grade 11	55%
Grade 111	53%

One volume of citronella oil should be soluble in 1-2 volumes of ethanol alcohol.

Medicinal and Chemical Properties
Chemical composition of citronella oil:

Chemical	“Heen pangiri”	“Maha pangiri”
Citronelal %	5%	>32%
Jeraniol %	18%	12-25%
Citronelol %	8%	11-15%
Total Jeraniol %	52-60%	85%