Turmeric

Curcuma domestica
Family Zingiberaceae

History

Turmeric has been used in India for more than 5000 years now. Initially it was cultivated as a dye as its’ vivid yellow colour works brilliantly as a colouring agent. Then its highly developed uses were came to know and people started using it for cosmetic and beautification purposes and eventually as a medicine.  Later it was became popular as a spice. Originating in India turmeric had reached China by 700 A.D, East Africa by 800 A.D and West Africa by 1200 A.D. Then it had begun to become popular all through the world. It is known that the Arab traders had carried turmeric with them to Europe in the 13th centaury.

Products and Uses

Turmeric is available in the market as in a whole dried form or in a powdered form. It is also used as an ingredient in preparation of curry mixtures. Oils and oleoresins are extracted from turmeric which is mainly used as coloring and flavoring agent in the food industry.
Turmeric is mainly used as a flavoring and coloring agent in the food industry. It is also used as a coloring in textiles and preparation of specific paints. In Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine turmeric is a common ingredient. In India turmeric is largely used as a disinfectant in day today life and in religious ceremonies.

 

Major Growing Areas

Turmeric is grown in wet and intermediate zones of Sri Lanka as a mono crop and an inter crop under coconut.  Major growing districts are Kurunagala, Gampaha, Kalutara, Kandy and Matale districts.

Varieties

Though there are number of locally grown varieties they are not specially identified. There are imported varieties namely, Gunter, Puna and Madurasi Majal. and they have been mixed with local varieties.

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
Many soil types are suitable. However well drained sandy loam soils rich with organic matter are the most suitable soil type. Ill drained rocky or clay type soils are not suitable.

Climate
Altitude: up to 1500 MSL
Rain fall: For the successful growth annual rain fall should be 1500mm or high. However turmeric can be grown in the dry zone under irrigation.
Temperature: 20 ºC – 35º C  
p.H – 5.5 – 6.5
Shade: Medium shade is most suitable. High shade declines the yield. Can grow successfully as an inter crop with coconut and banana.
Season: Main season- March April
Minor season - October-November

 

Crop establishment

Planting material:
There are two types of rhizomes as mother rhizomes and finger rhizomes. Matured finger rhizomes are the most suitable planting material. Piece of rhizome should be 40-50g in weight and be with 1-2 buds. Planting material should be disease free and selected from a high yielding cultivation. Before planting, rhizomes should be immersed in a fungicide for about 5 minutes to avoid fungal growth during planting.
Planting material requirement is 2500kg/ha.

Field Planting
Turmeric is planted in raised beds or ridges. Field should be ploughed up to 35-40cm in depth and tilling soil is done. Beds are 1m in width and length is vary with the space available. However when inter cropped with coconut width and length can be changed according to the available space. Height of the bed is about 15cm and drains, with 50cm in depth, should be prepared in between beds.
Spacing – between rows – 30cm
between plants – 25cm
03 rows per bed
Planting depth - 5-7.5cm             
Planting should be done after the rain. If no adequate moisture beds should be irrigated.

Crop management

Mulching
To protect moisture and to keep weeds under arrest mulching should be done immediately after planting. Straw, coir dust, dry leaves or coconut leaves are most suitable mulching material.

Fertilizer application
To add adequate Ca and Mg dolomite is mixed with the soil immediately after ploughing at the rate of 1-2 mt. /ha. To get a higher yield saw dust ash also added to the soil at the rate of 3-4kg/sq, meter of the bed during land preparation period.

Fertilizer recommendation

	Time	Organic fertilizer	Urea(kg)	TSP (kg)	MOP (kg)
Basal	At the time of planting	20 mt		100
1st app.	After 01 months	-	65		100
2nd app.	After 03 months	-	65		100

Fertilizer is applied after weeding and should be mixed with the soil. After that beds should be mulched. Fertilizer is applied with rain or should be irrigated after fertilizer application.   
In addition glyricidia leaves can be added as an organic fertilizer and thereby can cut down the need of chemical fertilizer and to protect the soil moisture.

Weeding
Weeding has to be done after one month of planting. The second weeding is done after three months of planting and the beds should be mulched again to protect the moisture. Cleaning drains and earthling up also done with the weeding.

Crop Protection

Diseases
Leaf scorching
Caused by a fungus. Yellow patches appears first and then spread to the whole leaf.  At the serious stage leaves look scorched. Agronomic practices and cultural methods are used as protection measures and if the problem is serious Macozeb-2 is sprayed.
Other diseases in turmeric are Leaf blotch, leaf rot and Rhizome rot.

Pests
Stem borer
Stem borer is the major pest attacks to turmeric cultivation. Adult moth lays eggs in leaf sheaths and caterpillar enters to the pseudo stem and damages the internal tissues of the plant. Initially plants become yellow then turn into brown and die. Dead heart symptom is the clear evidence to identify the presence of stem borer. Damaged plant parts have to be destroyed to control the spread and if the condition is serious recommended insecticide has to be sprayed.  
Leaf rolling caterpillars and scale insects are other minor pest attacks.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting
Harvesting is done after 8-10 months of planting. If planted in March-April Season turmeric is ready to be harvested by December – January. During that time plants become yellow in colour and start leaves drying. Harvesting is done with care not to damage rhizomes and attached soil clusters should be removed with a wooden stick.

Processing
Mother and finger rhizomes should be separated, washed thoroughly and remove all stem parts. They should be left for about a day for wilting. Mother rhizomes should be cut into pieces. Rhizomes should be boiled well in a closed pot filled with ¾ of water. When boiled properly rhizomes become tender. Instead of water steam boiling can also be applied. Pressure cookers can also be used to boil a few kilo grams of turmeric. Boiled rhizomes should be left in-door for about a day and then put for sun drying. Drying in first three days is limited to 3-4 hours and after that continues drying is must. Whole drying process requires 10-15 days. When dried properly, metallic sound can be heard. Dried rhizomes are rubbed on a rough surface to become them to bright yellow in color.  
 

Standard quality specifications

Moisture	9%
Curcumin	5-6%
Extraneous matter (to physical weight)	0.5%
Essential oil	3-5%

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Main chemical compound in turmeric is curcumin. Curcumin content vary from 2-6% depending on the species.
Last Updated on Monday, 16 August 2010 12:02 

Betel

Family: Piperaceae

Genus: Piperacea

Botanical name: Piper betle L.

 

History

Betel is an evergreen, perennial climber widely grown all over the Sri Lanka. The commercial product is the leaf, mainly used for chewing with Arecanut, slaked lime, tobacco and some other ingredients.  Betel chewing habit in Sri Lanka goes dates back to 340 B.C and during that time betel was a prestigious item used by the prestigious society of the country. The origin of betel is believed to be in Malaysia or in surrounding East Asian region and it is said to have been introduced to Sri Lanka and other South Asian Countries by Chinese and Arab   merchants. However, over ten wild relatives of betel are found in Sri Lanka.

Today betel is grown for local consumption and exports and Major betel growing countries are Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Bangladesh. Pakistan is the major importer of Sri Lankan betel.

Products and Uses

The leaves of this plant have a higher economical and medicinal value but from ancient times it has been mostly used for chewing purposes and ceremonial events along with other condiments. This chewing combination in the form of a betel quid could be varied with different ingredients from country to country.
Several value added products from betel has been formulated and those include betel toothpaste, mouthwash, shampoo, face cream, instant betel quid and pellets.

Major Growing Areas

Betel is grown in all over the country but the commercial production of export quality betel, with bigger leaves with dark green colour combined with thickness, known as “Kalu bulath” is significantly confined to few districts such as Kurunagala, Gampaha, Kegalle, Kalutara and Colombo.

Varieties

Large number of local betel accessions are grown in Sri Lanka. Among them "Maneru", "Ratadalu" and "Galdalu" are popular betel varieties with high export quality .

Soils and Climatic Requirements

Soil
Betel can be successfully grown in well-drained, fertile soils in wet to dry climatic zone of Sri Lanka. Especially the lataritic and clay loam soils in Kurunagala and Gampaha districts are highly suitable for betel cultivation. Waterlogged, saline or alkali soils are not suitable for the growth of betel.

Climate
Elevation – Can be successfully grown up to 1000M amsl.
Well-distributed annual rainfall enhances the growth of betel vines.
Betel is a sun loving plant but produces better quality leaves in the wet zone and intermediate zones rather than in the dry zone. Appropriable shade levels and irrigation are essential for successful cultivation of the crop. Hot dry winds are harmful and retard the growth of the vine.

Crop Establishment

Planting material

Betel is usually propagated by using stem cuttings. Cuttings should be healthy and taken from mother vines with high yielding and leaves are comparatively bigger and dark green in colour. Cuttings can directly be field planted or can be planted as rooted cuttings established in poly bags filled with a mixture of equal parts of top soil, cow dung, coir dust and sand.

Field Planting

Betel is usually planted in sunken beds. The field should be flat, well drained and with good sun shine. The field should not have a betel cultivation infected with Bacterial Leaf Blight at least for 2 years. After the land preparation, beds, usually in the size of 1.2mx7.5m, are prepared. Bed size can vary with the space available. Adequate spacing should be left between beds to allow management practices and to control the spread of disease. Beds should be sterilized by burning straw or ash on it. Around the cluster of beds a drainage canal of 30cm width, 60cm depth should be built.
An artificial live or dead support should be provided to betel for upright climbing. Supports, called as stakes, are established in the beds at the spacing of 45cmx 45cm. Two cuttings are planted near a stake. Before planting, cuttings should be immersed in a fungicide mixture for about 2 minutes. 
Instead of beds betel can be established as single plants. Cuttings are planted in 30cmx30cm pits, filled with top soil and cow dung mixture, and stakes of 2-4cm diameter should be established as supports. The spacing between plants is 1.8x1.8cm. Either live supports of Gliricidia sepium or durable dead wood support can be used.
Beds should be covered with coconut fronds or other shading material for about 4-6 weeks. Beds should be watered once or twice daily. Sprouting from cuttings starts within 20-45 days and after that shade should be removed gradually.

Crop Management

Fertilizer Application

Betel leaves are picked once in every 3-4 weeks and with that substantial quantity of nutrient is removed from the field. Therefore application of chemical fertilizer is essential for higher yield and better growth. 

Fertilizer recommendation
Urea                                         195g
Triple Super phosphate                 65g
Muriate of Potash                       100g
Keserite                                      60g   
420g of above mixture should be applied to 100 betel vines in every three weeks intervals.

Organic fertilizer

Initially cow dung or compost should be applied to the bed after about one month and it should be mixed well with soil without damaging to the newly planted cuttings. Well composed poultry manure or goat manure can also be used for betel. Application of               decomposed Glyricidia leaves is highly beneficial for better growth and higher yield.
Pruning and Training
It is generally trained either to live supports or dead supports but concrete post or coir ropes can also be used as substitutes.

• Pruning at 1m height of the betel vine is preferred to increase the plageotropic branches and yield.
• After 1.2 m growth of the betel vine Trellis is established.

Crop Protection

Diseases
Bacterial Leaf Blight

Betel leaf blight is caused by bacteria, called Xanthomonas campestris betlicola. Disease becomes epidemic during rainy seasons. First characteristic symptom is moist oily patches on underneath of leaves. Gradually they spread and turn into brown or black in colour. When the condition is serious these patches can spread to the stem resulting of shedding leaves and nodes. Consequently the plant will die but the disease can easily spread into surrounding vines.  No control measure has been identified other than destruction of seriously diseased plants. Diseased plants and near by plants should be burned on the spot. A chemical treatment can be applied to control the spread. All matured leaves of remaining vines should be removed and a chemical solution (mixture of 28g of copper based fungicide, 28g of Mancozeb and 28g of Captan dissolved in three gallons of water) should be sprayed once or twice to betel vines.
The spread of disease can be controlled by lowering the application of chemical fertilizer and water for infected betel plots. Use of disease free planting material, use of a agro well or a isolated water source for irrigation and adhering to strict hygienic practices are important ways to avoid contamination.
Occasional death of betel vines in a plot can be observed in some betel cultivations.  Main reason for such situation is due to nematode attacks.  Nematodes attacks to root system and cause partial destruction but secondary attacks of fungus and bacteria cause foot rot and destruction of root system causing to consequent death.
Fungal Foot rot and fungal attacks on leaves are other minor disease problems in betel cultivation.

Pests

No economically important pest problems are reported but insect damages by suck sapping insects and damages of red mites to betel leaves are commonly found in betel cultivations.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting is started when the betel vine is grown up to 1.2-1.8m in length.  Initially matured leaves (Kanda kola) are removed in lower parts of the main stem 2-3 times. After that betel leaves are harvested both from main stem and lateral stems. For export market betel is harvested from three weeks intervals and for local market in two weeks intervals.  Harvested betel leaves are bundled, having 40 leaves for each, before sending to the market. For export market those bundles are packed in specially prepared cane baskets.

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

The important constituent of the betel leaves is a volatile oil. Some of the major compounds identified in Sri Lankan betel oil are β-phellandrene, 4-terpinol, eugenol, chavibitol acetate, safrole and allylpyrocatechol diacetate.

Standard quality specifications

There are no specific quality parameters for betel. But for export quality betel following criteria is considered,
Size of the leaf – At least 20cm in length and 15cm in width
Color – well matured dark Green color leaves
High pungency
Freshness of the leavesStem of the leaf must be 2.5-3cm

Last Updated on Monday, 09 January 2012 10:23

Nutmeg

Myristica fragrans
Family: Myristaceae

   

History

Nutmeg is a perennial ever green spice tree and a native of Molluccas in East Indonesia.  There is some evidence to suggest that the Roman priests may have burned nutmeg as a form of incense. It is also known to have been used as a prized and costly spice in medieval cuisine, used as flavorings, medicines, preserving agents and that were at the time highly valued in the European markets. Nutmeg is reported to have been introduced to Sri Lanka in the beginning of the 19th centaury but there are evidences that the crop had been brought here even before that by merchants who were traveling on the Silk Road.  

Products and Uses

Nutmeg and mace are the main two products. Oils are extracted from both nutmeg and mace. Powdered nutmeg and mace is used in curry powders.
Nutmeg and mace are mainly used for culinary purposes to flavor curries and other food products, confectionaries and bakery products. It is also used in preparation of beverages and drinks. Nutmeg is used as an ingredient in Ayurvedeic and Chinese medicine.
 

Major Growing Areas

Nutmeg prefers cooler climates hence mid country areas of Sri Lanka are ideal for the growth of nutmeg.  Total extent of Nutmeg in Sri Lanka is 924ha and from which 80% of the extent is in Kandy district. Other major growing areas are Kegalle and Matale districts.

Varieties

In Sri Lanka no specific varieties have been identified. Mother trees are selected considering high yield (over10,000fruits/tree/yr), regular bearing habit, size of the nut (wet weight 10g /fruit) and heavy mace (wet weight 1g/fruit).

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
Deep well drained loams, and sandy clay loams rich in organic matter are preferable. Soils with high water table or liable to water logging are unsuitable.

Climate

Rainfall – well distributed rain fall of 1,500-2500mm. is sufficient
Temperature – average annual temperature should be 20-30 C
Altitude – up to 1500m
Shade is essential during the first two years of growth. Thereafter exposure to light is beneficial. However cooler, humid micro climate is much preferred for establishment and fruit setting.
Persistent strong winds are harmful.  Sheltered valleys and leeward slopes are best for growing cardamom.

Crop establishment

Planting material
Seeds are used for planting. Dark brown full sized seeds of matured fruits from selected mother plants are used for planting. Seeds have to be sown in nursery beds as soon as possible since the viability is lost within 8-10 days.
Seedlings are potted in poly bags filled with a mixture of equal parts of top soil, cow dung and sand. About 10g of rock phosphate are also added. Seedlings are kept under shade for about 6-8 months, then hardened and transplanted in the field. If large size plants are needed seedlings of 6-8 months of age are re-potted in bigger poly bags filled with same mixture and kept for another 9-12 months. Bigger plants establish well in the field.
For healthy growth of nursery seedlings, fertilizer solution (1kg urea, 0.5kg TSP, 0.75kgMOP dissolved in 100L of water) can be sprayed.

Field Planting

Spacing – 20’x20’(250 plants/ha.)
Planting is done with the on set of monsoon rains. Planting hole is 21/2’x21/2’ in size and is filled with a mixture of top soil and cattle manure. The collar of the plant has to be at the soil level and the care has to be given not to damage or bending the tap root during the planting. Soil around the plant has to be mulched adequately after the planting.
Temporary shade has to be provided to protect plants from direct sunlight. It is better if temporary shade trees have to be planted before 6-8 months of planting. 

Crop management

Removal of Male Plants
There are separate male and female trees in nutmeg but the sex cannot be identified from out side appearance. Only way for an average farmer to identify the sex of tree is after flowering. Generally 50% of the seedlings are males. Male trees do not set fruits but are essential for the pollination. Therefore after flowering male trees are removed marinating 1: 10 of male: female ratio. Vacancies are in-filled with new plants.

Fertilizer application

Recommended mixture - 625 kg / ha at the 10th year and after (density 250 plants/ha)

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrient in the mixture
Urea (46%N)	2	13%N
Rock phosphate ( 28 % P2O5)	2	8% P2O5
Muriate of potash (K2O)	3	25% K2O
Kieserite (24%MgO)	1/3	1% MgO

Rate of fertilizer application:

Year	Maha Season (mixture g/plant.)	Yala Season (mixture g/plant.)
1	120	120
2	250	250
3	375	375
4	500	500
5	625	625
6	750	750
7	875	875
8	1000	1000
9	1125	1125
10 yr. onwards	1250	1250

Terracing and Weeding

It is essential to bench terrace the base of the seedling particularly in sloping lands initially to a diameter about 0.5m. and thereafter widen as plant grows. An inward slope of the terrace will help to reduce the erosion of cut soil.
Weeds must be kept under check. Frequent slashing is recommended and slashed material must be applied to the base of the plant as mulch.

Crop Protection

Diseases and Pests

There are no economically important disease and pest problems.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

If well managed, nutmeg starts to bear at the 7th year and harvest increases with time. Productive age of nutmeg is uncertain as it can give good crop more over hundred years. However peak harvest comes after 20 years of age.
Yield of nutmeg vary from tree to tree from several nuts to 8000-10000 nuts per tree. Average yield is 1500dry nutmeg/tree/year and 1-1.5kgdry mace/tree/year.
As soon as fruits split or about to split they are hand picked from the trees. Fruits are opened by hand and the mace is removed from the nut by cutting with a small pointed knife where it is attached to the base of the nut. The nuts are dried until the kernel rattles in the shell. Dried nutmeg can be sold as it is or can be shelled and sold only the kernel. 
The mace is flattened by hand and dried slowly under the sun until a bright orange-yellow fragrant product is obtained.

Standard quality specifications

MaceGrade 1:

Shell consist of well dried mace containing not more than 5% of pieces less than one forth of the size of the normal whole mace.
 

Grade ll:

Shell consist of well dried mace in pieces
Moulds and Insects: Shall not be ore than 3% by mass in either grade
Extraneous Matter: Shall not be more than 1% by mass in either grade
 

Clove

Eugenia caryophyllus

Family : Myrtaceae

  

History

The clove tree is a medium sized symmetrically shaped tree with smooth grey bark. It is believed to be originated in Maluku Islands in Indonesia. Clove along with nutmeg and pepper were highly prized in Roman Era. Cloves were traded by Arabs in the Middle ages but in the 15th century Portugal took over the trade. The Portuguese brought large quantities of cloves to Europe mainly from Malku Islands and valued it at seven grams of gold per kg. Later the Spanish then the Dutch dominated the trade till the seventeenth century.  The French introduced clove to Mauritius in the year 1770 subsequently the cultivations were introduced to Guiana, Zanzibar, West Indies and most of the Brazil.  It is not known how and when clove was introduced to Sri Lanka but may be the Arab traders or Colonial rulers may have brought the plant to the country as Sri Lanka was a major trading hub for spices during that time. 

Products and Uses

Clove is largely used as dried whole buds. Ground clove is used for curry mixtures and clove oil is used for flavoring foods and in pharmaceutical perfumery industry.
Cloves are used either whole or ground to provide flavor for both sweet and savory foods in pickling and the production of sauces and ketchups. In medicine it is valued as a carminative, aromatic and stimulant. It is being used in cigarette industry as a flavoring agent. Clove oil is used in perfumes, in dentistry and a clearing agent in microscopy.
 

Major Growing Areas

Clove is mainly grown in Mid Country wet zone of Sri Lanka. Total extent of clove is 7618ha. and Kandy, Kegalle and Matale districts are major growing areas.
 

Varieties

No specific varieties have been identified. However there are trees produce bigger size clove buds which are called as “Bothal Karabu”. 
 

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil

Clove thrives well in a variety of soils. Deep and rich loams with high humus content are best suited for the crop. It also grows satisfactorily on laterite soils. Pure sandy soil is unsuitable for this crop. Clove does not tolerate water logging and therefore land selected for this crop should be well drained.

Climate
Clove grows well in a humid tropical climate from sea level up to 1000m elevation.
An average rainfall of 1750- 2500mm. per annum is sufficient. It is however, necessary that dry periods alternate with moist ones for good flowering
The annual average temperature should be 20 o - 30o C without much seasonal and diurnal variation.
Persistent strong winds are harmful.
Shade is essential during the first two or three years of growth. Thereafter full exposure to light is beneficial.

Crop establishment

Planting material

Clove is propagated through seeds. Tree ripe fruits should be sown immediately since the viability of seeds is rapidly lost within 48 hours of collection. Seeds obtained by removing outer pulp show early and uniform sprouting. The seeds are sown in perforated polythene bags consist of equal parts of well decomposed farm yard manure, top soil and coarse sand. The size of the polythene bags may vary from 10 Χ 20cm to 25 Χ 40cm depending on the time kept in nurseries before field planting. Bigger plants (15-20months) establish better in the field.

Field planting: Spacing: 20’Χ20’(250 plants/ha)
Temporary shade for 2-3 years is necessary. Artificial shade for newly established plants may be required during sunny seasons. Whenever possible ground cover crops such as leguminous sps, which do not compete with clove, should be established as a soil conservation measure.

Crop management

Fertilizer application

Recommended mixture - 625 kg / ha at the 10th year and after (density 250 plants/ha)

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrient in the mixture
Urea (46%N)	2	13%N
Rock phosphate ( 28 % P2O5)	2	8% P2O5
Muriate of potash (K2O)	3	25% K2O
Kieserite (24%MgO)	1/3	1% MgO

Rate of fertilizer application:

Year	Maha Season (mixture g/plant.)	Yala Season (mixture g/plant.)
1	120	120
2	250	250
3	375	375
4	500	500
5	625	625
6	750	750
7	875	875
8	1000	1000
9	1125	1125
10 yr. onwards	1250	1250

Crop Protection

Diseases

No serious diseases and pests have been reported in Sri Lanka

Pests
No serious pest and diseases have been reported in Sri Lanka except wilting of nursery plants in large proportions. The incidence of wilting can be controlled by controlling shade and water application. Leaf spotting due to Pestalots sp. and Collectotrichum sp is fairly common in nurseries and during wet weather, but do not seem to have any serious effects.
 

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting
The right stage of harvesting clove buds is when flower petals change their colour from olive green to yellow pink. Clusters of flowers are harvested together with the stalks. The harvesting season commences usually in December and extends up to the end of April depending upon the locality.
The average yield of dry cloves in Sri Lanka is about 250kg/ha.Under good management conditions a yield of abut 850kg/ha can be obtained.

Processing:
The flower buds should be detached from the stalks and both buds and stalks are dried in sun or artificial drier until they become dark brown and hard. Well dried good quality cloves are in golden brown color and badly dried cloves are soft and pale brown with a whitish mealy appearance which are known as “khuker” cloves. Green clove buds of the right stage give about 30% dry cloves. Well dried cloves (8-10% moisture) can be stored in gunny bags without damage by fungus and insects for 1 or 2 years.

Standard quality specifications

The specifications given by the Sri Lanka Slandered Institute is as follows.

	Gr.2	Gr.2	Gr.3
Khuker cloves max. % by mass.	3	5	10
Cloves below 10mm length max % by mass	15	25	N.A
Extraneous matter max % by mass	1	2	3
Moisture max. % by mass	12	12	14

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Eugenol comprises 72-90% of the essential oil extracted from cloves and the compound is most responsible for the aroma of cloves. Other important essential oil constituents of clove oil include acetyl eugenol, beta-caryophyllene and vanillin, crategolic acid, gallotannic acid, methyl salicylate, eugenin, kaempferol, rhammentin, eugenitin, oleanolic acid, sigmasterol and campesterol.

Clove is used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, western herbalism and in the dentistry, where the essential oil is traditionally used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental emergencies. Cloves have carminative effect to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Clove oil is used in various skin disorders like acne, pimples etc. and also used in skin burns , skin irritation and sensitiveness of skin.

Vanilla

Vanilla fragrans
Family – Orchidaceae

 History

Vanilla is an economically important crop as it is the source of natural vanillin. It is believed that vanilla is indigenous to north eastern Mexico. It is ancient Totonaco Indians of Mexico who were the first keepers of the secrets of vanilla. When they were defeated by the Aztecs they were demanded to relinquish their exotic fruit, vanilla pods. Later Aztecs were defeated by the Spanish and Spaniard Hernando Cortez, the Spanish mariner, returned to Spain with the precious plunder vanilla beans which were combined with cacao to make an unusual and pleasing drink. For eighty years this special beverage was only enjoyed by the nobility and the very rich. Then in 1602 Hugh Morgan, Apothecary to Queen Elizabeth I, suggested that vanilla could be used as a flavoring all by it self and versatility of the exotic bean was finally uncovered. However only in 1858 Gobley was able to isolate vanillin from vanilla pods. Today vanilla is grown by Madagaskar, Indonesia, Mexico, Thahiti and few other countries including Sri Lanka as a commercial crop.
 

Products and Uses

Vanillin is the main product extracted from vanilla. It is used as a flavor ingredient in confectionery industry, perfumery and pharmaceutical industries.
 

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka vanilla is mainly confined as a home garden crop grown in mid and low country wet zone. Total extent is less than 100ha. and main growing areas are Kandy, Nuweraeliya,Matale and Kegalle ditricts.
 

Varieties

No specific varieties have been identified in Sri Lanka and planting material is taken from traditionally grown vines.
 

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil
High fertile well drained loamy soils are preferable. Soils should be rich in organic matter. 

Climate
Altitude - Vanilla performs well up to 1000m above the mean sea level.
Temperature – 21-32 0C is suitable. But Vanilla performs well at 27 0C
Rainfall – 2000-2500 mm. But 2-3 months dry spell is needed for flower initiation.
 

Crop establishment

Planting material
Vegetative methods are practiced. Cuttings, 3’-4.5’ (1-1.5m) in size, are obtained from selected mother vines. Lower end of the cuttings should be closer to the node and 3-4 leaves should be removed from the lower end. To induce buds cuttings should be hanged on a support for about 7 days.

Field Planting
Vanilla is a shade loving plant hence live support trees are used to provide adequate shade (50-60%). Glyricidia is the most suitable shade tree and support trees should be established at least six months before planting vanilla.
Spacing – 3m x 1.5 m (10’ x 5’) (2000 cuttings / ha)
Planting should be done with the on set of rain. Loosen the soil around the base of support up to 8’’ deep in and area of about 2’ in diameter. Then add 2-3 basket of organic manure. Make a furrow 10 (4’’) deep (from support tree and across the surface of planting pit.) and place the cutting horizontally in the furrow leaving 3 cm from lower cut end jutting out into air . Cuttings should be buried firmly with upturned soil. The upper end of the cutting is tied up on to the support tree and mulching should be done up to thickness of 7.5 – 15 cm using decayed organic matter.

 

Crop management

Training of vines -
When cuttings start to grow emerging axial buds should be trained to turn vines to grow upward direction. When vines reach top of the support tree they should be allowed to droop. When reached to ground let them to grow on soil further 30 -45 cm (1-1.5’) and then curl the stem upwards and allow the buds to grow up again on the support tree. This process should be repeated until vines form several loops. Ground area of loops should be covered with organic manure.

Stimulate flowering –
To get the maximum number of flowers flowering should be induced artificially. Usually this practice is done in January. For that 5-7 nodes are removed from the tip of drooped matured branches. To get 70-80% sunlight shade trees too should be pruned. .

Manuring-
Usually artificial fertilizer is not applied to vanilla but organic fertilizer is essential.  Compost should be applied at the beginning of each rainy season. Plants should be mulched at least once in six month with dry or fresh leaves and lopping of shade trees. 

Pollination-
In vanilla artificial pollination is essential as the natural pollination rarely produce pods. Flower is self-fertile, but incapable of self-pollination without the aid of an outside agency to either transfer the pollen from the anther to the stigma or to lift the flap or rostellum and press the anther against the stigma. Usually flowers come out in April-/ May period and flowers are small lily like, greenish-yellow in colour. There are about 20 flowers in a raceme. Usually, only one flower in a raceme opens in a day, with the entire flowering period of the raceme lasting an average of 24 days. The flower opens in the morning and closes in the afternoon, never to re-open. If it is not pollinated, it will shed the next day. The optimum time for pollination is in mid morning.
 

Crop Protection

No economically important pests and diseases have been reported
 

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Harvesting –
Pods reach maturity after 8-9 months from pollination. Harvesting mainly falls in December- January.  Ideal stage is when tip of the green pods start turning yellow and before split opened of the lower end of pods. In harvesting only mature pods should be e harvested. To make one kg of pods 70 -100 well ripened pods are needed and 6 kg of raw pods are needed to make 1kg of cured pods. Pods must atleast be longer than 6cm and better quality pods must be longer than 10cm. To get quality bulk of pods small pods ( Less tan 10 cm long) should be removed from the plants 2 months after pollination and allow only 8-10 pods in a bunch and remove all other pods. Pods should be plucked by turning upright and should not be used pair of scissors or knife to avoid fungus formed in cut end.
Yield – After 3 years of planting 500 – 800 kg/ha and peak yield level at 8years
Processing
There are several methods of processing but basic steps in each and every method are same. Those steps are

• Killing or Wilting – Initiates the on set of enzymatic reactions responsible for the production of aroma and flavor. Pods become brown in color.

• Sweating - Increase the temperature to promote the enzymatic reactions and to provoke fairly rapid drying to prevent harmful fermentations, Develop deep brown coloration of pods.
• Drying – Slow drying. Beans reach to one-third of their original weight
• Conditioning – Store in closed boxes for a period of three months or longer to permit the full development of desired aroma and flavor

The aroma and flavor of the cured vanilla bean/pod are the characteristics that determine the bean’s commercial value on the world market. Processing should be done carefully to preserve the maximum aroma and flavor as well as the physical appearance. Once the mature vanilla beans have been picked, they are taken to the curing and sorted according to size and condition. Sorted beans are plunged into large vats of hot water (63 degrees Celsius) and quickly drained. The warm beans are wrapped in dark colored cotton fabric and after a day they are laid on slatted platforms to dry in the open sun for an hour. For about a week, the beans are left for two hours a day to dry in the sun and rolled in cloth between drying session. At this stage the vanilla beans have become quite supple. For the next two or three months the vanilla beans are spread on racks in the shade or in well-ventilated rooms to allow their full flavor and fragrance to develop. After the curing process, vanilla beans are sorted in an open airy place and graded according to length before they are bundled for shipment. By this time, their aroma is quite remarkable.

Standard quality specifications
Length of pods – between 17-25cm
Smell - Inherited vanilla smell
Color – Dark brown or black color
Appearance - Shiny oily surface
Lack of insect attacks or other patches
Cleanness – Lack of extraneous matter, animal o plant parts or insects
Moisture – around 25%-30%

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Though there are many compounds presents in the extracts of vanilla, Vanillin (4-hydroxi-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is primarily responsible for the characteristic flavor and smell of vanilla. However there are hundreds of minor compounds in vanilla extract. Main compound in vanilla oil is piperonal (heliotropin)

Pepper

Piper nigram L.

Family: Piperaceae

  

History

Pepper is the most widely used spice in the world and known as “King of the Spices”. Pepper crop is native to South Asia and historical records reveal that pepper is originated in South India.  Peppercorns were a much prized trade good often referred also as “black gold” and used by as a form of commodity money. Until well after the Middle age, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East and the North Africa traveled there from India’s Malabar region. It was some part of the preciousness of these spices that led to the European efforts to find a sea route to India and consequently to the European Colonial occupation of the country as well as European discovery and colonization of America/s. Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, India and Brazil are the main pepper producers in the world.

Products and Uses

Pepper is largely produces as black pepper which is the dried whole fruit. White pepper is produced by removing outer pericarp and pepper is also available in crushed and ground forms. Small amount of green and ripened pepper is pickled in brine and dehydrated green pepper and preserved red pepper also traded. Pepper oil and oleoresins are also extracted marketed as value added products.

Pepper is mainly used as a spice and flavoring agent in food industry. It also has industrial uses in perfumery and pharmaceutical industries.

 

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka pepper is mainly cultivated in Low and Mid country Wet and Intermediate agro-climatic zones. Total extent of pepper in Sri Lanka is about 29,378ha and Matale, Kandy, Kegalle,Badulla,Ratnapura, Monaragala and Kurunagala are the major districts.

Varieties

Although the origin of black pepper is believed to be Malabar Coast of India, Sri Lanka too is a home to a number of wild pepper types. When consider the huge genetic variability of P. nigrum L. found in Sri Lanka and the presence of pepper wild relatives, it is believed that Sri Lanka also a place of origin of pepper.  Some commercial black pepper varieties had also been introduced to Sri Lanka since the existence of commercial black pepper trade. High yielding pepper line called “Panniur-1” from India and “Kuchin” from Malaysia was introduced in 1970s but MB21 and GK 49 are high yielding and superior quality local selections which are popular among black pepper cultivators.

Soils and Climatic needs

Soil

Pepper grows best in well drained loamy soils rich in organic matter and having a minimum depth of 60cm. Clay soil restrict root growth and create moisture stress during short dry spells. Ill drain soils leads to many soil borne diseases.

Climate

Altitude: from Sea level to elevation of about 800m amsl.

Annual rain fall: not less than 1750mm. Areas with prolonged droughts should be avoided unless there is facility for supplementary irrigation. There should be clear dry spell and a sufficient rainfall for flower induction and to facilitate pollination.

Temperature: Plants can tolerate 15º C – 35ºC. Growth and yield performances are better in humid tropics. Strong winds are harmful.

Crop establishment

Planting material

Pepper is usually propagated vegetatively using stem cuttings. For commercial cultivations cuttings are selected from terminal stems or from ground runners. If cuttings are taken from lateral branches bush type pepper plants can be produced. The selected mother vine should be high yielding, healthy and with vigorous growth, produce lateral branches with short inter-nodal distances, long spikes, complete coverage of spikes with berries, bold berries and be free from pest and diseases. As pepper is grown in different climatic zones the selected line should be tolerant to the climatic conditions of the area. Cuttings are planted in poly bags filled with a mixture of equal parts of top soil, cow dung, sand and coir dust.

Field Planting

Spacing – for both mono crop and inter crop with coconut – 2.4mx2.4m spacing is recommended (1700 plants/ha).
After the land preparation planting pits of 45cmx45cmx45cm are made and filled with the mixture of top soil, cow dung or compost.

Pepper vines are trained on live or dead supports. In Sri Lanka live supports are used and commonly used support trees is Glyricidia sepium. and some may use Erythrina indica (Dadap) or Gravilia robusta. Glyricidia sticks of 3-5cm in diameter and 2.2m in length should be planted to a 20cm depth at the corner of the planting pit. Supports should be planted at least 06 months before the planting of pepper provide adequate shade.

Field planting of pepper is done with the on set of monsoon rains. About 4-6 months old potted healthy and vigorously growing plants with 5-8 leaves are planted in the pits at 15-20cm away from the support.  Immediately after the planting, temporary shade should be provided to protect cuttings from the direct sun light and suitable mulch should be applied to the base to conserve soil moisture.

Crop management

Training and pruning pepper vines

As the new pepper plants starts elongating, it must be tied on to the support so as to facilitate the adventurous roots to attach themselves to the support.

It is required to train 3-4 orthotropic (terminal) shoots over the support and satisfactory number of plagiotrophic (lateral) branches when the vine reaches to 8-10 nodes. Having 2-3 terminal shoots give a more productive columnar shape canopy and substantial numbers of lateral   branches ensure the higher yield (Spikes are emerged only from lateral branches), If any growing does not produce orthotropic at the 8-10 nodal stage the pruning of pepper vine from the terminal should done to induce 3-4 orthotropic shoots.

After 3-5 years pepper vine grows to the top of the standard and make a good canopy. At the height of 3.5-4.0m height pruning should be done to maintain the height of the pepper plant and to make a good shape canopy.

Shade control and mulching

The height and number of branches of the Glyricidia support should also be regulated by pruning so as to keep a final height of about 3.5-4.0m height.  It is recommended to prune Glyricida trees at least 3 to4 times a year. In the wet zone pruning Glyricidia four times a year is highly beneficial as it reduces the labor cost and unwanted shade and also provides adequate mulching material. Experimental evidences have shown that application of Glyricidia lopping, at the rate of 10kg/tree/year, can cut down inorganic fertilizer requirement by 50% without any yield loss.

Fertilizer application
Recommended mixture - 2380 kg / ha (without Glyricidia lopping)
Recommended mixture - 1190 kg / ha (with Glyricidia lopping)

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrient in the mixture
Urea (46%N)	4	14%N
Rock phosphate ( 28 % P2O5)	5	11% P2O5
Muriate of potash (60% K2O)	3	14% K2O
Kieserite (24%MgO)	1	2% MgO

Without glyricidia lopping

Age of plantation	Maha Season (mixture Kg/ha.)	Yala Season (mixture Kg./Ha.)
1st Year (kg)	250	250
2nd Year (kg)	500	500
3rd Year and onwards (kg)	700	700

with glyricidia lopping

Age of plantation	Maha Season (mixture Kg/ha.)	Yala Season (mixture Kg./Ha.)
1st Year (kg)	125	125
2nd Year (kg)	250	250
3rd Year and onwards (kg)	350	350

Crop Protection

Diseases
Pepper Yellow Mottle Virus Disease

Pepper Yellow Mottle Virus(PYMV) disease is the most harmful disease for pepper caused by a combination of viruses. Initial yellowish spots could be seen on young leaves and subsequent stunted growth of the vine, small, irregular leaves with yellow mosaic patches, Short internodes, and small spikes with half filled berries are visible symptoms. Gradually yield decline drastically.  Disease is spread through vectors such as Pepper lace bug, Mealy bugs and infected planting material. No identified control measures except the use of healthy planting material and destroying infected plants and vector control.

Quick Wilt

Disease is caused by a fungus called Phytopthera capsisi. Base of the plant is infected first and basal parts of the vine get rotten which will spread into root system. When infected, plants get wilt and die within 2-3 weeks. Disease can be avoided by improving drainage and keeping the shade under control. When diseased infected plant parts should be removed and Bordeaux mixture or other fungicide should be sprayed into base of the vine.

Slow Wilt

Leaves become yellow in drought but gets normal after rain. This situation exits for about a year or two and finally plant become yellow and die. About 20-30% yield decline in pepper has been observed due to slow wilt. Slow wilt of pepper caused due to the damage to the root system by mechanical damages, nematode and insect damages and fungal attacks. To avoid the nematodes 03g of carbofuran should be added into pots or 30g of carbofuran should be added into planting hole. Experimental evidence has proved that application of Glyricidia lopping at four times a year reduces nematodes significantly. If the condition is serious infected plants should be uprooted and destroyed. Proper soil conservation and maintain organic matter content in soil minimize the incidence. Chemical treatment should be applied after confirmation of the real cause.

Pests

Lace Bug

Lace bug is a vector of the PYMV disease. Population is rapidly increasing during the rainy season though the insect can be seen through out the year. Adult lay eggs underneath of the leaf and nymphs suck juices from immature plant parts and spikes. Brown spots can be seen on leaves and damaged spikes produce no or less berries. A significant yield loss can be seen when damage occur during flowering stage. Agronomic practices such as shade control and weed control is important for control the insect. If damage is serious chemical treatments can be applied. 
Stem borers and leaf eating caterpillars are other important pests.
 

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

Pepper is harvested after 7-8 months of maturity. To separate berries pepper corns are threshed manually or by using a mechanical thresher. Pepper berries can be directly dried under sun or can use artificial dryers. Sun drying takes 4-6 days. To get uniform black color, blanching of raw pepper is done by immersing berries in boiling water for about 03 minutes. Blanching reduces drying time by 2-3 days and also kills any microorganism presence. To produce white pepper fully ripened berries are immersed in water for about 5-6 days until the seed coat get rotten. Then the seed coat is removed by rubbing on a wire mesh or using mechanical decorticator. Remaining pepper seeds are thoroughly washed and dried to produce white pepper.

Standard quality specifications

Quality standards approved by the Sri Lanka Standard Institute are given below

	Sp. Grade I	Grade I	FAQ
Mouldy berries %	1	1	2
Other extraneous matter %( insects live or dead, stones, sand, plant parts, mammalian fecal matter etc.)	1	1	2
Light berries %	Max. 4	Max. 4	Max.10
Moisture %	12	14	14
Appearance	Dark black colour with surface grooves	Dark black to brownish black colur with surface grooves

 

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Bioperine is a standardized extract from the fruits of black pepper (Piper nigrum) or long pepper (Piper longum). Its piperine content is 95% or more, compared to only 3-9% found in raw forms of these peppers. Black pepper extract, containing Bioperine has been used extensively in Ayurvedic medicine to treat fevers, digestive disorders, urinary difficulties, rheumatism, neuralgia and boils.  Bioperine enhances the bioavailability of nutrients. Due to its ability to increase the absorption of nutrients comprising nutritional supplement formulations, bioperine has been termed a natural thermonutrient and bioavailability    enhancer.

  Tea Cultivation

It is not particularly hard to make tea grow. As long as it gets plenty of rain and temperatures do not vary much year round, Camellia sinensis is a robust shrub, able to tolerate a fairly wide range of more or less tropical climates, altitudes and soil conditions. It flourishes happily in the wild, in China (whence it originates), in Assam and elsewhere. Untended, the bushy shrub that covers the hills of central Sri Lanka in manicured, contour-planted swathes becomes a shaggy, gnarled tree that can grow up to 9m (30ft.) tall. It was from such trees that the original seed-stock of Ceylon tea – in fact, of all tea – was derived.Growing tea worthy to bear the famous Lion of Ceylon logo is not at all easy, however.Every permutation and combination of such variables such as plant stock quality, soil, weather, altitude and exposure has a discernible effect on the quality of the final product.

So sensitive is the tea plant to such effects that samples of tea picked from different hillsides or ‘fields’ on a single estate, or even from the same hillside on different days of the week, will appear different to an experienced taster. Today, when much of the island’s output is grown on smallholder farms, the potential variation within even a single sub-district can be even wider.

Such extreme variability was a great handicap to pioneer Ceylon tea planters, who could never be sure of a consistent product. Advances in the art and science of tea production, together with such processes as bulking, delivered greater consistency, but tea cultivation remains, much like viniculture, a business of regional and seasonal variation, of vintages delectable or disappointing. Modern supermarket brands, which are made by blending teas from many sources of origin, tend to eliminate this exciting variety in favour of a predictable, homogenized ‘consumer experience’; Ceylon tea, on the other hand, proudly emphasizes its unique, variable yet always recognizable character. The differences between the various tea-growing regions of Sri Lanka are marked, and the flexibility of the orthodox black tea process enables many adjustments to be made at the manufacturing stage.


Clearing
Less common now than in the pioneering days, a sloping hillside is cleared of trees and scrub for planting with tea. The heavy timber, often valuable, is removed and the remaining cutting is burnt off, the resulting ash helping fertilize the soil.

Preparation
In preparation for planting, the land must be surveyed, ‘lined’ to mark the future position of each bush, drained and ‘holed’ to receive the plants. Proper drainage is vital; the ideal is a clean runoff with a minimum of erosion.

Planting
Originally grown from seed, either in situ or at a nursery, tea is now reproduced by vegetative propagation or ‘cuttings’. The traditional pattern of planting, with bushes arranged in geometrical clusters, was superseded in the 1960s by contour planting that closely follows the line of the hillside. Trees are planted amid the tea to provide partial shade and further control soil erosion.

Weeding
Early planters weeded their fields clean, losing tons of topsoil with every shower of rain. Today, only weeds that can harm the tea are picked, the rest left in to help ‘bind’ the soil. Topsoil loss remains a problem, however; how to overcome it is a subject of much controversy, study and experiment at Sri Lanka’s national Tea Research Institute and elsewhere.

Fertilization
While the proportion of organically-produced Ceylon Tea harvested increases annually  to keep pace with demand, conventionally-grown teas must also pass the Tea Board’s stringent rules on chemical content. This not only results in a safer and healthier product, but also helps protect the environment.

Pruning
Tea-bushes, like vines, respond well to periodic mutilation. Pruning, which begins before the plant is mature enough for plucking, is repeated every couple of years thereafter, causing the bush to grow horizontally instead of vertically. Performed using a special knife, pruning is a strenuous and difficult manual operation that resists automation. Human skill is an essential part of the process.

Plucking
Picking the tea, or ‘plucking’ as it is known in the trade, continues all year round, though different regions produce their best teas at different times of the year due to the climatic variations associated with them. The pluckers, mostly women, restrict themselves to the two tenderest leaves and the ‘bud’ that grow at the very top of every stem. Coarser picking results in poor-quality tea.

Cinnamon

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume

Family Lauraceae

History

Cinnamon is the dried bark of the perennial tree of C.zeylanicum of the Lauraceae family. True cinnamon is native to Sri Lanka. Cinnamon is originally grown wild in central hill country of Sri Lanka. The history of cinnamon dates back to about 2800 B.C where it can be found referenced as ”kwai” in Chinese writings. Cinnamon is even mentioned in the Bible when Moses used it as an ingredient for his anointing oil in ancient Rome. It was burned in Roman funerals perhaps partly as a way forward to off the odor of dead bodies. Emperor Nero is said to have burned a years’ worth of the dry supply of cinnamon at the funeral of his wife Poppaea Sabina. Ancient Egyptians used it in embalming mummies because of pleasant odors and its preservative qualities.

The best historical evidence about the cinnamon trade in Sri Lanka is found in Up country-Dutch agreement (Hanguranketha agreement) signed in 14th February 1766 between the Sri Lankan king Sri Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe and the Dutch government.
By this agreement King had permitted the Dutch to cut and peel cinnamon in certain forest areas of Sri Lanka and Dutch agreed to protect the Kingdom from foreign invasion.

  

Products and Uses

Cinnamon bark is largely available in the form of quills and making quills is unique to Sri Lanka. Quills are made by rolling the pealed bark and join several of them together to get a pipe like structure in the required length. Other than that pieces of bark are available as chips, quillings or featherings. Cinnamon is unique plant which has essential oil in leaves, bark and roots but chemical composition of them are completely different from each other. Essential oils are produced from both bark and leaves; major chemical in bark oil is Cinnamaldehyde and in leaf oil Euginol. Cinnamon is also available in pure ground form or as n ingredient in curry mixtures and pelleted form too.

Cinnamon is mostly used in cooking and baking. Cinnamon is a versatile spice which can be added to any food item such as salads, confectionaries, beverages, soups, stews and sauces. Cinnamon drink made by immersing pieces of bark in hot water is popular among Latin American countries. Cinnamon flavored tea is becoming popular. It is also used as a common ingredient in Chinese ad Aurvedic medicine. Cinnamon leaf and bark oils are used to flavor food products, in perfumery industry and in pharmaceutical industry.

 

Major Growing Areas

In Sri Lanka, Cinnamon seems to have originated in the central hills where seven wild species of cinnamon occur in Kandy, Matale, Belihull oya, Haputale, Horton planes and the Sinharaja forest range. Presently cultivation concentrated along the coastal belt from Negambo to Matara, it has also made inroads to Kalutara and Ratnapura.

Varieties

There are eight cinnamon species in Sri Lanka. Among them only Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume is grown commercially. In tradition, there were several types of cinnamon categorized based on taste of the bark. “Pani-Miris Kurundu” was the best with sweet-pungent taste and “Miris Kurundu”, “Sevel Kurundu” and “Thiththa Kurundu” are the others. Currently ten cinnamon accessions have been identified based on yield and quality performances and best two lines, named as “Sri Vijaya” and “Sri Gamunu”, were released. Other selections are under evaluation in different agro climatic zones.

Soils and Climatic needs

Soils
Cinnamon can be grown in various types of soils varying from silver sands in Negambo to loamy and lateritic gravelly soils in Southern costal belt and interior. The bark quality is influenced by soil and climatic factors and the best quality cinnamon is produced in white sandy soil in Negombo area. However, the best grade cinnamon called “Alba” is mainly produced in Red Yellow Podzolic soils in South-western region of Sri Lanka. Cinnamon needs a deep soil but cinnamon roots can penetrate even through the cracks of the parent material to deeper layers.

Climate
Cinnamon is commercially grown in coastal belts in Sri Lanka and spread to interior part of the country where elevation is increased up to about 250 above MSL. Naturally cinnamon has been found in central hilly area of Sri Lanka the elevation increased up to about 500m amsl. Until to date it can be found in  Sinharaja  and Knuckles forest reserve. Wet zone is ideal for the successful growth of cinnamon but it can be grown commercially in Intermediate zones of mid and low country, where annual rainfall is more than 1750mm.  However it is not suitable for areas with prolong dry periods.
Cinnamon is sun loving plant and high sun shine is needed.
The most suitable temperature is between 250C- 320C .
Rainfall should be in the region of 1,750-3,500 mm per annum.

Crop establishment

Planting materials
Cinnamon is usually propagated by seeds in large scale. Vegetative propagation through stem cuttings is feasible. Well ripened seeds are selected, thoroughly washed to remove pericarp and plant in 12.5 x20.0cm poly bags filled with equal parts of top soil, cow dung, sand and coir dust.
Five to eight seeds are planted in a bag but thinning out is done to keep 4-5 vigorous plants after about two months.

Field planting
Spacing - 120cm x 90cm (9000 plants/ha)
Planting is done with the on set of monsoon rains.  Healthy, disease free, four month old seedlings are planted in pits of 30cm x 30cm x 30cm. Planting pit is filled with top soil and cow dung or compost and one bag with 4-5 seedlings is planted in a pit.

Crop management

Fertilizer application
When harvesting the whole cinnamon plant is harvested hence the bush need a high fertilizer dose to rejuvenate a new shoot. Application of chemical fertilizer increases the yield significantly and application of organic fertilizer (cinnamon leaves, compost, poultry manure) too is highly beneficial for successful growth and yield.

Fertilizer recommendation
Recommended fertilizer mixture - 900 kg / ha /yr

Components of the mixture	Parts by weight	Nutrients in the mixture
Urea (46% N)	2	23% N
Rock phosphate (28% p2O5)	1	7% P2O5
Muriate of potash (60% k2O)	1	15% K20

Age of plantation	Maha Season (mixture kg/ha)	Yala Season (mixture kg/ha)
1st Year (six months after planting)	150	150
2nd Year (kg)	300	300
3rd Year and onwards (kg)	450	450

Fertilizer is applied twice a year with the beginning of rains of Yala and Maha. Dolomite is applied, at the rate of 500 to 1000kg / ha /year, in areas where soil pH is below 4.5.

Weeding - Weeding is also an essential operation in cinnamon. Clean weeding is recommended for young plantations and slash weeding is recommended at 2-3 times a year for mature crop.
Soil conservation –In areas where the land is sloppy or undulated, soil conservation reduce the erosion.  Contour trenches at appropriate intervals are recommended.
Plant training and pruning – Training and pruning of plants should be done once in every six months. Excess lateral branches are removed to have a straight and smooth stem and after harvesting weak shoots are removed to enhance the growth of main stems.

Crop Protection

Diseases

Rough Bark Disease: Phomopsis sps.

Rough bark disease is the most common disease of cinnamon which affects on young bark of immature shoots as brown spots and spread gradually throughout the bark. Leaves of the infested plants show clorosis and under severe conditions infected immature plants will die. Diseased bark can not be peeled. Disease can be controlled by destroying diseased plant and through adoption of correct cultural practices. Harvesting should be done at correct intervals and excess lateral branches to be removed. As a chemical treatment 1% Bordeaux mixture or copper based fungicide can be sprayed.

White Root Disease
Causal agent is a fungus known as Fomes noxis. Commonly found in cinnamon planted in lands which previously had rubber cultivations. Yellowing and subsequent shedding of leaves and sudden death of plants are visible symptoms. White colour fungal mycelia growths can be observed on roots of infected plants.
To control the spread of disease dead plants should be uprooted and burned. Root bases should be cleaned. Sulphur powder should be applied to the bases of infected plants and planting holes when new plants are establishing in such lands.
Other minor diseases are leaf blight, Black powdery mildew algae growth on leaves.

Pests
Pink Stem Borer: Ichneumoniptera cf.xanthosoma

Adult moth lays eggs in the bases of the cinnamon plant and caterpillar (larvae) eats in to the plant stem near the soil surface. This pest damage is most common in old plantations with poor crop management. As a result, new shoots may die and some mature shoots collapses from the base. New shoot formation also retarded. At the end gradually bush will die. The damage can successfully be controlled by covering the plant base by earthling up and through proper soil conservation. If the damage is serious, chemicals such as carbofuran and chlorophyrophos can be used.  

Other minor pest problems are cinnamon shoot borer, plant ticks and mites, leaf minor and cinnamon butterfly attacks.

Harvesting and Post Harvest practices

First harvest of cinnamon can be taken after three years of planting and two harvests can be taken per year. Harvesting is done when the bark color of the stem turn in to brown and stick diameter is about 3-5cm diameter. Branches and leaves are removed from harvested sticks before peeling and harvested stems should be peeled on the same day. During peeling outer skin is scraped and rubs the bark with a brass rod to be loosened bark from the hard wood. Then peel the bark, part by part, with a special knife and peeled bark is allowed to dry under sun for few hours and when rolling of the bark starts, pieces of bark are connected together and to make a pipe like structure (called as a quill) and the standard length of the tube is 42 inches. The hollow of the tube is filled with small pieces of stem and the tubes are left for in-door drying for about 4-7 days.

Standard quality specifications
Quality requirements in cinnamon quills

Character
Smell	Inherited smell of cinnamon
Colour	Light brown to brown
Moisture content	14% for quills and 12% for other products
Volatile oil	1% for quills and 0.7% for other products
No. of dead insects (no./kg)	4
Mammalian fecal matter (mg/kg)	2
Other fecal matter (mg/kg)	4
Pieces with fungus attacked (% weight)	1
Pieces with insects damages ( %  weight)	1
Other extraneous matter (% weight)	05

Specifications for cinnamon quills

Grade	Diameter (max. mm)	Min. no. of 42” long quills per kg	% rough quills per kg	Min. length of quills in a bail	Max. % of single quality quills per bail
Alba	6	45	None	200	1
Continental (C )
C00000 Sp.	6	35	10	200	1
C00000	10	31	10
C0000	13	24	10
C000	16	22	15
C00	17	20	20
C0	19	18	25
Mexican (M)
M00000Sp.	16	22	50	200	2
M00000	16	22	60
M0000	19	18	60
Hamburg (H)
H1	23	11	25	150	3
H2	25	9	40
H3	38	7	60

Medicinal and Chemical Properties

Euginol is the main chemical ingredient in cinnamon leaf oil and Cinnamaldihide is present in cinnamon bark oil. However there are hundreds of minor chemical ingredients which give characteristic flavor and aroma in true cinnamon.
Cinnamon has been used for medicinal purposes and has been known as a healing herb since it is mentioned in Chinese botanical books that date back to 2700 B.C. In ancient Rome It had been used medicinally for cold and flu as well as for the problems of the digestive system. Recently, it has been studied for its ability to boost brain power, reduce blood clotting and its healing effects on the heart and colon. Recent studies have proved its ability to control type 2 diabetics by reducing blood sugar level and to reduce blood cholesterol level. In traditional society’s cinnamon is said to have used to relieve digestive upset, congestion, menstrual problems, stiff joints and muscles. It has said to been used as an anti-inflammatory agent and as a pain reliever to arthritis patients. Some studies had shown that cinnamon help to cure urine tract infections and to fight tooth decay and gym disease.